The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 1 (of 6)
Date: 2018-07-12T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Natural history -- Pre-Linnean works

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Title: The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 1 (of 6)

Author: the Elder Pliny

Translator: John Bostock

Henry T. Riley

Release date: July 12, 2018 [eBook #57493]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Turgut Dincer, Brian Wilcox and the Online
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY, VOLUME 1 (OF 6) ***

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

BOHN’S CLASSICAL LIBRARY.

PLINY’S

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE
NATURAL HISTORY
OF
PLINY.

TRANSLATED,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

BY THE LATE

JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S.

AND

H. T. RILEY, Esq., B.A.,
LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. I.

LONDON:
HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
MDCCCLV.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

PREFACE

The only translation of Pliny’s Natural History which has hitherto appeared in the English language is that by Philemon Holland, published in the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth. It is no disparagement to Holland’s merits, as a diligent and generally faithful translator, to say that his work is unsuited to the requirements of the nineteenth century.

In the present translation, the principal editions of Pliny have been carefully consulted, and no pains have been spared, as a reference to the Notes will show, to present to the reader the labours of recent Commentators, among whom stands pre-eminent the celebrated Cuvier. It has been a primary object to bring to the illustration of the work whatever was afforded by the progress of knowledge and modern discoveries in science and art. Without ample illustration, Pliny’s valuable work would want much of the interest which belongs to it, and present difficulties scarcely surmountable by any one who has not made the Author his especial study.

In the first two Books, the text of Hardouin, as given in Lemaire’s edition (Paris, 1827), has been followed; in the remainder that of Sillig (Gotha, 1851-3), excepting in some few instances, where, for reasons given in the Notes, it has been deemed advisable to depart from it. The first two Books, and portions of others, are the performance of the late Dr. Bostock, who contemplated a translation of the entire work; but, unfortunately for the interests of science, he was not permitted to carry his design into execution.

Upwards of a hundred pages had been printed off before the present Translator entered on his duties; and as they had not the advantage of Dr. Bostock’s superintendence through the press, some trifling oversights have occurred. These are, for the most part, corrected in a short Appendix.

THE

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY.

Caius Plinius Secundus was born either at Verona or Novum Comum1, now Como, in Cisalpine Gaul, in the year A.U.C. 776, and A.D. 23. It is supposed that his earlier years were spent in his native province; and that he was still a youth when he removed to Rome, and attended the lectures of the grammarian Apion. It was in about his sixteenth year that he there saw Lollia Paulina2, as in the following she was divorced by Caligula, and it was probably in his twentieth that he witnessed the capture of a large fish at Ostia, by Claudius and his attendants3, and in his twenty-second that he visited Africa4, Egypt, and Greece.

In his twenty-third year Pliny served in Germany under the legatus Pomponius Secundus, whose friendship he soon acquired, and was in consequence promoted to the command of an ala, or troop of cavalry. During his military career he wrote a treatise (now lost) “On the Use of the Javelin by Cavalry,” and travelled over that country5 as far as the shores of the German Ocean, besides visiting Belgic Gaul. In his twenty-ninth year he returned to Rome, and applied himself for a time to forensic pursuits, which however he appears soon to have abandoned. About this time he wrote the life of his friend Pomponius, and an account of the “Wars in Germany,” in twenty books, neither of which are extant. Though employed in writing a continuation of the “Roman History” of Aufidius Bassus, from the time of Tiberius, he judiciously suspended its publication during the reign of Nero, who appointed him his procurator in Nearer Spain, and not improbably honoured him with equestrian rank. It was during his sojourn in Spain that the death of his brother-in-law, C. Cæcilius, left his nephew C. Plinius Cæcilius Secundus (the author of the Letters) an orphan; whom immediately upon his return to Rome, A.D. 70, he adopted, receiving him and his widowed mother under his roof.

Having been previously known to Vespasian in the German wars, he was admitted into the number of his most intimate friends, and obtained an appointment at court, the nature of which is not known, but Rezzonico conjectures that it was in connexion with the imperial treasury. Though Pliny was on intimate terms also with Titus, to whom he dedicated his Natural History, there is little ground for the assertion, sometimes made, that he served under him in the Jewish wars. His account of Palestine clearly shows that he had never visited that country. It was at this period that he published his Continuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus.

From the titles which he gives to Titus in the dedicatory preface, it is pretty clear that his Natural History was published A.D. 77, two years before his death.

In A.D. 73 or 74, he had been appointed by Vespasian præfect of the Roman fleet at Misenum, on the western coast of Italy. It was to this elevation that he owed his romantic death, somewhat similar, it has been remarked, to that of Empedocles, who perished in the crater of Mount Ætna. The closing scene of his active life, simultaneously with the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, cannot be better described than in the language employed by his nephew in an Epistle to his friend Tacitus the historian6:—“My uncle was at Misenum, where he was in personal command of the fleet. On the ninth7 day before the calends of September, at about the seventh hour, 1 P.M., my mother, observing the appearance of a cloud of unusual size and shape, mentioned it to him. After reclining in the sun he had taken his cold bath; he had then again lain down and, after a slight repast, applied himself to his studies. Immediately upon hearing this, he called for his shoes, and ascended a spot from which he could more easily observe this remarkable phænomenon. The cloud was to be seen gradually rising upwards; though, from the great distance, it was uncertain from which of the mountains it arose; it was afterwards, however, ascertained to be Vesuvius. In appearance and shape it strongly resembled a tree; perhaps it was more like a pine than anything else, with a stem of enormous length reaching upwards to the heavens, and then spreading out in a number of branches in every direction. I have little doubt that either it had been carried upwards by a violent gust of wind, and that the wind dying away, it had lost its compactness, or else, that being overcome by its own weight, it had decreased in density and become extended over a large surface: at one moment it was white, at another dingy and spotted, just as it was more or less charged with earth or with ashes.

“To a man so eager as he was in the pursuit of knowledge, this appeared to be a most singular phænomenon, and one that deserved to be viewed more closely; accordingly he gave orders for a light Liburnian vessel to be got ready, and left it at my option to accompany him. To this however I made answer, that I should prefer continuing my studies; and as it so happened, he himself had just given me something to write. Taking his tablets with him, he left the house. The sailors stationed at Retina, alarmed at the imminence of the danger—for the village lay at the foot of the mountain, and the sole escape was by sea—sent to entreat his assistance in rescuing them from this frightful peril. Upon this he instantly changed his plans, and what he had already begun from a desire for knowledge, he determined to carry out as a matter of duty. He had the gallies put to sea at once, and went on board himself, with the intention of rendering assistance, not only to Retina, but to many other places as well; for the whole of this charming coast was thickly populated. Accordingly he made all possible haste towards the spot, from which others were flying, and steered straight onwards into the very midst of the danger: so far indeed was he from every sensation of fear, that he remarked and had noted down every movement and every change that was to be observed in the appearance of this ominous eruption. The ashes were now falling fast upon the vessels, hotter and more and more thickly the nearer they approached the shore; showers of pumice too, intermingled with black stones, calcined and broken by the action of the flames: the sea suddenly retreated from the shore, where the debris of the mountain rendered landing quite impossible. After hesitating for a moment whether or not to turn back, upon the pilot strongly advising him to do so:—“Fortune favours the bold8,” said he, “conduct me to Pomponianus.” Pomponianus was then at Stabiæ, a place that lay on the other side of the bay, for in those parts the shores are winding, and as they gradually trend away, the sea forms a number of little creeks. At this spot the danger at present was not imminent, but still it could be seen, and as it appeared to be approaching nearer and nearer, Pomponianus had ordered his baggage on board the ships, determined to take to flight, if the wind, which happened to be blowing the other way, should chance to lull. The wind, being in this quarter, was extremely favourable to his passage, and my uncle soon arriving at Stabiæ, embraced his anxious friend, and did his best to restore his courage; and the better to re-assure him by evidence of his own sense of their safety, he requested the servants to conduct him to the bath. After bathing he took his place at table, and dined, and that too in high spirits, or at all events, what equally shows his strength of mind, with every outward appearance of being so. In the mean time vast sheets of flame and large bodies of fire were to be seen arising from Mount Vesuvius; the glare and brilliancy of which were beheld in bolder relief as the shades of night came on apace. My uncle however, in order to calm their fears, persisted in saying that this was only the light given by some villages which had been abandoned by the rustics in their alarm to the flames: after which he retired to rest, and soon fell fast asleep: for his respiration, which with him was heavy and loud, in consequence of his corpulence, was distinctly heard by the servants who were keeping watch at the door of the apartment. The courtyard which led to his apartment had now become filled with cinders and pumice-stones, to such a degree, that if he had remained any longer in the room, it would have been quite impossible for him to leave it. On being awoke he immediately arose, and rejoined Pomponianus and the others who had in the meanwhile been sitting up. They then consulted together whether it would be better to remain in the house or take their chance in the open air; as the building was now rocking to and fro from the violent and repeated shocks, while the walls, as though rooted up from their very foundations, seemed to be at one moment carried in this direction, at another in that. Having adopted the latter alternative, they were now alarmed at the showers of light calcined pumice-stones that were falling thick about them, a risk however to which as a choice of evils they had to submit. In taking this step I must remark that, while with my uncle it was reason triumphing over reason, with the rest it was only one fear getting the better of the other. Taking the precaution of placing pillows on their heads, they tied them on with towels, by way of protection against the falling stones and ashes. It was now day in other places, though there it was still night, more dark and more profound than any ordinary night; torches however and various lights in some measure served to dispel the gloom. It was then determined to make for the shore, and to ascertain whether the sea would now admit of their embarking; it was found however to be still too stormy and too boisterous to allow of their making the attempt. Upon this my uncle lay down on a sail which had been spread for him, and more than once asked for some cold water, which he drank; very soon however, they were alarmed by the flames and the sulphurous smell which announced their approach, upon which the others at once took to flight, while my uncle arose leaning upon two of the servants for support. Upon making this effort, he instantly fell to the ground; the dense vapour having, I imagine, stopped the respiration and suffocated him; for his chest was naturally weak and contracted, and often troubled with violent palpitations. When day was at last restored, the third after the closing one of his existence, his body was found untouched and without a wound; there was no change to be perceived in the clothes, and its appearance was rather that of a person asleep than of a corpse. In the meantime my mother and myself were at Misenum—that however has nothing to do with the story, as it was only your wish to know the details connected with his death. I shall therefore draw to a conclusion. The only thing that I shall add is the assurance that I have truthfully related all these facts, of which I was either an eye-witness myself, or heard them at the time of their occurrence, a period when they were most likely to be correctly related. You of course will select such points as you may think the most important. For it is one thing to write a letter, another to write history;—one thing to write for a friend, another to write for the public. Farewell.”

Of the mode of life pursued by Pliny, and of the rest of his works, an equally interesting account has been preserved by his nephew, in an Epistle addressed to Macer9. We cannot more appropriately conclude than by presenting this Epistle to the reader:—“I am highly gratified to find that you read the works of my uncle with such a degree of attention as to feel a desire to possess them all, and that with this view you inquire, What are their names? I will perform the duties of an index then: and not content with that, will state in what order they were written: for even that is a kind of information which is by no means undesirable to those who are devoted to literary pursuits. His first composition was a treatise ‘on the use of the Javelin by Cavalry,’ in one Book. This he composed, with equal diligence and ingenuity, while he was in command of a troop of horse. His second work was the ‘Life of Q. Pomponius Secundus,’ in two Books, a person by whom he had been particularly beloved.—These books he composed as a tribute which was justly due to the memory of his deceased friend. His next work was twenty Books on ‘the Wars in Germany,’ in which he has compiled an account of all the wars in which we have been engaged with the people of that country. This he had begun while serving in Germany, having been recommended to do so in a dream. For in his sleep he thought that the figure of Drusus Nero10 stood by him—the same Drusus, who after the most extensive conquests in that country, there met his death. Commending his memory to Pliny’s attentive care, Drusus conjured him to rescue it from the decaying effect of oblivion. Next to these came his three books entitled ‘The Student’11, divided, on account of their great size, into six volumes. In these he has given instructions for the training of the orator, from the cradle to his entrance on public life. In the latter years of Nero’s reign, he wrote eight books, ‘On Difficulties in the Latin Language12;’ that being a period at which every kind of study, in any way free-spoken or even of elevated style, would have been rendered dangerous by the tyranny that was exercised. His next work was his ‘Continuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus,’ in thirty-one books; after which came his ‘Natural History,’ in thirty-seven books, a work remarkable for its comprehensiveness and erudition, and not less varied than Nature herself. You will wonder how a man so occupied with business could possibly find time to write such a number of volumes, many of them on subjects of a nature so difficult to be treated of. You will be even more astonished when you learn, that for some time he pleaded at the bar as an advocate, that he was only in his fifty-sixth year at the time of his death, and that the time that intervened was equally trenched upon and frittered away by the most weighty duties of business, and the marks of favour shewn him by princes. His genius, however, was truly quite incredible, his zeal indefatigable, and his power of application wonderful in the extreme. At the festival of the Vulcanalia13, he began to sit up to a late hour by candle-light, not for the purpose of consulting14 the stars, but with the object of pursuing his studies; while, in the winter, he would set to work at the seventh hour of the night, or the eighth at the very latest, often indeed at the sixth15. By nature he had the faculty of being able to fall asleep in a moment; indeed, slumber would sometimes overtake him in his studies, and then leave him just as suddenly. Before daybreak, he was in the habit of attending the Emperor Vespasian,—for he, too, was one who made an excellent use of his nights,—and then betook himself to the duties with which he was charged. On his return home, he devoted all the time which was still remaining to study. Taking an early repast, after the old fashion, light, and easy of digestion, in the summer time, if he had any leisure to spare, he would lie down in the sun-shine, while some book was read to him, he himself making notes and extracts in the meanwhile; for it was his habit never to read anything without making extracts, it being a maxim of his, that there is no book so bad but that some good may be got out of it. After thus enjoying the sunshine, he generally took a cold bath; after which he would sit down to a slight repast, and then take a short nap. On awaking, as though another day had now commenced, he would study till the hour for the evening meal, during which some book was generally read to him, he making comments on it in a cursory manner. I remember, on one occasion, a friend of his interrupting the reader, who had given the wrong pronunciation to some words, and making him go over them again. “You understood him, didn’t you?” said my uncle. “Yes,” said the other. “Why, then, did you make him go over it again? Through this interruption of yours, we have lost more than ten lines.” So thrifty a manager was he of time! In summer he rose from the evening meal by daylight; and, in winter, during the first hour of the night16, just as though there had been some law which made it compulsory on him to do so. This is how he lived in the midst of his employments, and the bustle of the city. When in retirement in the country, the time spent in the bath was the only portion that was not allotted by him to study. When I say in the bath, I mean while he was in the water; for while his body was being scraped with the strigil and rubbed, he either had some book read to him, or else would dictate himself. While upon a journey, as though relieved from every other care, he devoted himself to study, and nothing else. By his side was his secretary, with a book and tablets; and, in the winter time, the secretary’s hands were protected by gloves, that the severity of the weather might not deprive his master for a single moment of his services. It was for this reason also that, when at Rome, he would never move about except in a litter. I remember that on one occasion he found fault with me for walking—“You might have avoided losing all those hours,” said he; for he looked upon every moment as lost which was not devoted to study. It was by means of such unremitting industry as this that he completed so many works, and left me 160 volumes of notes17, written extremely small on both sides, which in fact renders the collection doubly voluminous. He himself used to relate, that when he was procurator in Spain, he might have parted with his common-place book to Largius Licinius for 400,000 sesterces; and at that time the collection was not so extensive as afterwards. When you come to think of how much he must have read, of how much he has written, would you not really suppose that he had never been engaged in business, and had never enjoyed the favour of princes? And yet, on the other hand, when you hear what labour he expended upon his studies, does it not almost seem that he has neither written nor read enough? For, in fact, what pursuits are those that would not have been interrupted by occupations such as his? While, again, what is there that such unremitting perseverance as his could not have effected? I am in the habit, therefore, of laughing at it when people call me a studious man,—me who, in comparison with him, am a downright idler; and yet I devote to study as much time as my public engagements on the one hand, and my duties to my friends on the other, will admit of. Who is there, then, out of all those who have devoted their whole life to literature, that ought not, when put in comparison with him, to quite blush at a life that would almost appear to have been devoted to slothfulness and inactivity? But my letter has already exceeded its proper limits, for I had originally intended to write only upon the subject as to which you made inquiry, the books of his composition that he left. I trust, however, that these particulars will prove no less pleasing to you than the writings themselves; and that they will not only induce you to peruse them, but excite you, by a feeling of generous emulation, to produce some work of a similar nature.—Farewell.”

Of all the works written by Pliny, one only, the ‘Historia Naturalis’ has survived to our times. This work, however, is not a ‘Natural History’ in the modern acceptation of the term, but rather a vast Encyclopædia of ancient knowledge and belief upon almost every known subject—“not less varied than Nature herself,” as his nephew says. It comprises, within the compass of thirty-seven books, 20,000 matters of importance, collected from about 2000 volumes (nearly all of which have now perished), the works, as Pliny himself states, of 100 writers of authority; together with a vast number of additional matters unknown to those authorities, and many of them the results of his own experience and observation. Hardouin has drawn up a catalogue of the authors quoted by Pliny; they amount in number to between 400 and 500.

The following is a brief sketch of the plan of this wonderful monument of human industry. After a dedicatory Epistle to Titus, followed by a table of contents of the other Books, which together form the First Book, the author proceeds to give an account of the prevailing notions as to the universe, the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, and the more remarkable properties of the elements (partes naturæ). He then passes on to a geographical description of the face of the earth as known to the ancients. After the Geography comes what may in strict propriety be termed “Natural History,” including a history of man, replete indeed with marvels, but interesting in the highest degree. Having mentioned at considerable length the land, animals, fishes, birds, and insects, he passes on to Botany, which in its various aspects occupies the larger portion of the work. At the same time, in accordance with his comprehensive plan, this part includes a vast amount of information on numerous subjects, the culture of the cereals and the manufacture of oil, wine, paper (papyrus), and numerous other articles of daily use. After treating at considerable length of Medical Botany, he proceeds to speak of medicaments derived from the human body, from which he branches off into discussions on the history of medicine, and magic, which last he looks upon as an offshoot from the medical art; and he takes this opportunity of touching upon many of the then current superstitions and notions on astrology. He concludes this portion of his work with an account of the medicinal properties of various waters, and of those of fishes and other aquatic animals. He then presents us with a treatise on Mineralogy, in which he has accumulated every possible kind of information relative to the use of gold, silver, bronze, and other metals; a subject which not unnaturally leads him into repeated digressions relative to money, jewels, plate, statues, and statuaries. Mineral pigments next occupy his attention, with many interesting notices of the great painters of Greece; from which he passes on to the various kinds of stone and materials employed in building, and the use of marble for the purposes of sculpture, including a notice of that art and of the most eminent sculptors. The last Book is devoted to an account of gems and precious stones, and concludes with an eulogium on his native country, as alike distinguished for its fertility, its picturesque beauties, and the natural endowments and high destinies of its people.

From the writings of Pliny we gather of course a large amount of information as to his opinions and the constitution of his mind. His credulity, it must be admitted, is great in the extreme; though, singularly enough, he severely taxes the Greeks with the same failing18. Were we not assured from other sources that he was eminently successful in life, was in the enjoyment of opulence, and honoured with the favour and confidence of princes19, the remarks which he frequently makes on human life, in the Seventh Book more especially, would have led us to the conclusion that he was a disappointed man, embittered against his fellow-creatures, and dissatisfied with the terms on which the tenure of life is granted to us. He opens that Book with a preface replete with querulous dissatisfaction and repinings at the lot of man—the only ‘tearful’ animal—he says20. He repines at the helpless and wretched condition of the infant at the moment it is ushered into life, and the numerous pains and vices to which it is doomed to be subject.—Man’s liability to disease is with him a blemish in the economy of nature:—“life,” he says, “this gift of nature, however long it may be, is but too uncertain and too frail; to those even to whom it is most largely granted, it is dealt out with a sparing and niggardly hand, if we only think of eternity21.” As we cannot have life on our own terms, he does not think it worthy of our acceptance, and more than once expresses his opinion that the sooner we are rid of it the better. Sudden death he looks upon as a remarkable phænomenon, but, at the same time, as the greatest blessing that can be granted to us22: and when he mentions cases of resuscitation, it is only to indulge in the querulous complaint, that, “exposed as he is by his birth to the caprices of fortune, man can be certain of nothing; no, not even his own death23.” Though anything but24 an Epicurean, in the modern acceptation of the word, he seems to have held some, at least, of the tenets of Epicurus, in reference to the immortality of the soul. Whether he supposed that the soul, at the moment of death, is resolved into its previous atoms or constituent elements, he does not inform us; but he states it as his belief, that after death the soul has no more existence than it had before birth; that all notions of immortality are a mere delusion25; and that the very idea of a future existence is ridiculous, and spoils that greatest26 blessing of nature—death. He certainly speaks of ghosts or apparitions, seen after death; but these he probably looked upon as exceptional cases, if indeed he believed27 in the stories which he quotes, of which we have no proofs, or rather, indeed, presumptive proofs to the contrary; for some of them he calls “magna28 fabulosetas,” “most fabulous tales.”

In relation to human inventions, it is worthy of remark, that he states that the first29 thing in which mankind agreed, was the use of the Ionian alphabet; the second, the practice of shaving30 the beard, and the employment of barbers; and the third, the division of time into hours.

We cannot more appropriately conclude this review of the Life and Works of Pliny, than by quoting the opinions of two of the most eminent philosophers of modern times, Buffon and Cuvier; though the former, it must be admitted, has spoken of him in somewhat too high terms of commendation, and in instituting a comparison between Pliny’s work and those of Aristotle, has placed in juxtaposition the names of two men who, beyond an ardent thirst for knowledge, had no characteristics in common.

“Pliny,” says Buffon31, “has worked upon a plan which is much more extensive than that of Aristotle, and not improbably too extensive. He has made it his object to embrace every subject; indeed he would appear to have taken the measure of Nature, and to have found her too contracted for his expansive genius. His ‘Natural History,’ independently of that of animals, plants, and minerals, includes an account of the heavens and the earth, of medicine, commerce, navigation, the liberal and mechanical arts, the origin of usages and customs, in a word, the history of all the natural sciences and all the arts of human invention. What, too, is still more astonishing, in each of these departments Pliny shows himself equally great. The grandeur of his ideas and the dignity of his style confer an additional lustre on the profoundness of his erudition; not only did he know all that was known in his time, but he was also gifted with that comprehensiveness of view which in some measure multiplies knowledge. He had all that delicacy of perception upon which depend so materially both elegance and taste, and he communicates to his readers that freedom of thought and that boldness of sentiment, which constitute the true germ of philosophy. His work, as varied as Nature herself, always paints her in her most attractive colours. It is, so to say, a compilation from all that had been written before his time: a record of all that was excellent or useful; but this record has in it features so grand, this compilation contains matter grouped in a manner so novel, that it is preferable to most of the original works that treat upon similar subjects.”

The judgment pronounced by Cuvier on Pliny’s work, though somewhat less highly coloured, awards to it a high rank among the most valuable productions of antiquity. “The work of Pliny32,” says he, “is one of the most precious monuments that have come down to us from ancient times, and affords proof of an astonishing amount of erudition in one who was a warrior and a statesman. To appreciate with justice this vast and celebrated composition, it is necessary to regard it in several points of view—with reference to the plan proposed, the facts stated, and the style employed. The plan proposed by the writer is of immense extent—it is his object to write not merely a Natural History in our restricted sense of the term, not an account merely, more or less detailed, of animals, plants, and minerals, but a work which embraces astronomy, physics, geography, agriculture, commerce, medicine, and the fine arts—and all these in addition to natural history properly so called; while at the same time he continually interweaves with his narrative information upon the arts which bear relation to man considered metaphysically, and the history of nations,—so much so indeed, that in many respects this work was the Encyclopædia of its age. It was impossible in running over, however cursorily, such a prodigious number of subjects, that the writer should not have made us acquainted with a multitude of facts, which, while remarkable in themselves, are the more precious from the circumstance that at the present day he is the only author extant who relates them. It is to be regretted however that the manner in which he has collected and grouped this mass of matter, has caused it to lose some portion of its value, from his mixture of fable with truth, and more especially from the difficulty, and in some cases, the impossibility, of discovering exactly of what object33 he is speaking. But if Pliny possesses little merit as a critic, it is far otherwise with his talent as a writer, and the immense treasury which he opens to us of Latin terms and forms of expression: these, from the very abundance of the subjects upon which he treats, render his work one of the richest repositories of the Roman language. Wherever he finds it possible to give expression to general ideas or to philosophical views, his language assumes considerable energy and vivacity, and his thoughts present to us a certain novelty and boldness which tend in a very great degree to relieve the dryness of his enumerations, and, with the majority of his readers, excuse the insufficiency of his scientific indications. He is always noble and serious, full of the love of justice and virtue, detestation of cruelty and baseness, of which he had such frightful instances before his eyes, and contempt for that unbridled luxury which in his time had so deeply corrupted the Roman people. For these great merits Pliny cannot be too highly praised, and despite the faults which we are obliged to admit in him when viewed as a naturalist, we are bound to regard him as one of the most meritorious of the Roman writers, and among those most worthy to be reckoned in the number of the classics who wrote after the reign of Augustus.”

CONTENTS.

OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

BOOK I.
DEDICATION.
Page

C. Plinius Secundus to his friend Titus Vespasian

1

BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

Chap.

1.

Whether the world be finite, and whether there be more than one world

13

2.

Of the form of the world

16

3.

Of its nature; whence the name is derived

ib.

4.

Of the elements and the planets

18

5.

Of God

20

6.

Of the nature of the stars; of the motion of the planets

25

7.

Of the eclipses of the moon and the sun

34

8.

Of the magnitude of the stars

35

9.

An account of the observations that have been made on the heavens by different individuals

36

10.

On the recurrence of the eclipses of the sun and the moon

38

11.

Of the motion of the moon

40

12.

Of the motions of the planets and the general laws of their aspects

ib.

13.

Why the same stars appear at some times more lofty and at other times more near

42

14.

Why the same stars have different motions

47

15.

General laws of the planets

48

16.

The reason why the stars are of different colours

49

17.

Of the motion of the sun and the cause of the irregularity of the days

50

18.

Why thunder is ascribed to Jupiter

51

19.

Of the distances of the stars

52

20.

Of the harmony of the stars

ib.

21.

Of the dimensions of the world

53

22.

Of the stars which appear suddenly, or of comets

55

23.

Their nature, situation, and species

56

24.

The doctrine of Hipparchus about the stars

59

25.

Examples from history of celestial prodigies; Faces, Lampades, and Bolides

ib.

26.

Trabes Cælestes; Chasma Cæli

60

27.

Of the colours of the sky and of celestial flame

ib.

28.

Of celestial coronæ

61

29.

Of sudden circles

62

30.

Of unusually long eclipses of the sun

ib.

31.

Many suns

ib.

32.

Many moons

63

33.

Daylight in the night

ib.

34.

Burning shields

ib.

35.

An ominous appearance in the heavens, that was seen once only

ib.

36.

Of stars which move about in various directions

64

37.

Of the stars which are named Castor and Pollux

ib.

38.

Of the air, and on the cause of the showers of stones

65

39.

Of the stated seasons

66

40.

Of the rising of the dog-star

67

41.

Of the regular influence of the different seasons

ib.

42.

Of uncertain states of the weather

69

43.

Of thunder and lightning

ib.

44.

The origin of winds

70

45.

Various observations respecting winds

71

46.

The different kinds of winds

73

47.

The periods of the winds

75

48.

Nature of the winds

77

49.

Ecnephias and Typhon

79

50.

Tornadoes; blasting winds; whirlwinds, and other wonderful kinds of tempests

80

51.

Of thunder; in what countries it does not fall, and for what reason

ib.

52.

Of the different kinds of lightning and their wonderful effects

81

53.

The Etrurian and the Roman observations on these points

82

54.

Of conjuring up thunder

83

55.

General laws of lightning

84

56.

Objects which are never struck

86

57.

Showers of milk, blood, flesh, iron, wool, and baked tiles

87

58.

Rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets heard in the sky

88

59.

Of stones that have fallen from the clouds. The opinion of Anaxagoras respecting them

ib.

60.

The rainbow

89

61.

The nature of hail, snow, hoar, mist, dew; the forms of clouds

90

62.

The peculiarities of the weather in different places

91

63.

Nature of the earth

ib.

64.

Of the form of the earth

94

65.

Whether there be antipodes?

ib.

66.

How the water is connected with the earth. Of the navigation of the sea and the rivers

97

67.

Whether the ocean surrounds the earth

98

68.

What part of the earth is inhabited

100

69.

That the earth is in the middle of the world

102

70.

Of the obliquity of the zones

ib.

71.

Of the inequality of climates

ib.

72.

In what places eclipses are invisible, and why this is the case

104

73.

What regulates the daylight on the earth

105

74.

Remarks on dials, as connected with this subject

106

75.

When and where there are no shadows

107

76.

Where this takes place twice in the year and where the shadows fall in opposite directions

108

77.

Where the days are the longest and where the shortest

ib.

78.

Of the first dial

109

79.

Of the mode in which the days are computed

110

80.

Of the difference of nations as depending on the nature of the world

ib.

81.

Of earthquakes

111

82.

Of clefts of the earth

112

83.

Signs of an approaching earthquake

114

84.

Preservatives against future earthquakes

ib.

85.

Prodigies of the earth which have occurred once only

115

86.

Wonderful circumstances attending earthquakes

116

87.

In what places the sea has receded

ib.

88.

The mode in which islands rise up

117

89.

What islands have been formed, and at what periods

118

90.

Lands which have been separated by the sea

119

91.

Islands which have been united to the main land

ib.

92.

Lands which have been totally changed into seas

ib.

93.

Lands which have been swallowed up

120

94.

Cities which have been absorbed by the sea

ib.

95.

Of vents in the earth

121

96.

Of certain lands which are always shaking, and of floating islands

122

97.

Places in which it never rains

123

98.

The wonders of various countries collected together

ib.

99.

Concerning the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the sea

124

100.

Where the tides rise and fall in an unusual manner

127

101.

Wonders of the sea

128

102.

The power of the moon over the land and the sea

ib.

103.

The power of the sun

129

104.

Why the sea is salt

ib.

105.

Where the sea is the deepest

130

106.

The wonders of fountains and rivers

131

107.

The wonders of fire and water united

138

108.

Of Maltha

138

109.

Of naphtha

139

110.

Places which are always burning

ib.

111.

Wonders of fire alone

141

112.

The dimensions of the earth

143

113.

The harmonical proportion of the universe

147

BOOK III.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

Introduction

151

1.

The boundaries and gulfs of Europe first set forth in a general way

153

2.

Of Spain generally

ib.

3.

Of Bætica

154

4.

Of Nearer Spain

164

5.

Of the province of Gallia Narbonensis

174

6.

Of Italy

180

7.

Of the ninth region of Italy

184

8.

The seventh region of Italy

186

9.

The first region of Italy; the Tiber; Rome

191

10.

The third region of Italy

207

11.

Sixty-four islands, among which are the Baleares

210

12.

Corsica

213

13.

Sardinia

215

14.

Sicily

216

15.

Magna Græcia, beginning at Locri

222

16.

The second region of Italy

225

17.

The fourth region of Italy

231

18.

The fifth region of Italy

235

19.

The sixth region of Italy

237

20.

The eighth region of Italy; the Padus

241

21.

The eleventh region of Italy; Italia Transpadana

246

22.

The tenth region of Italy

248

23.

Istria, its people and locality

251

24.

The Alps, and the Alpine nations

254

25.

Liburnia and Illyricum

257

26.

Dalmatia

259

27.

The Norici

262

28.

Pannonia

263

29.

Mœsia

264

30.

Islands of the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic

265

BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

1.

Epirus

271

2.

Acarnania

273

3.

Ætolia

275

4.

Locris and Phocis

276

5.

The Peloponnesus

278

6.

Achaia

280

7.

Messenia

282

8.

Laconia

283

9.

Argolis

284

10.

Arcadia

285

11.

Attica

288

12.

Bœotia

290

13.

Doris

293

14.

Phthiotis

293

15.

Thessaly Proper

294

16.

Magnesia

296

17.

Macedonia

297

18.

Thrace; the Ægean Sea

302

19.

The islands which lie before the lands already mentioned

310

20.

Crete

313

21.

Eubœa

316

22.

The Cyclades

317

23.

The Sporades

320

24.

The Hellespont.—The lake Mæotis

326

25.

Dacia, Sarmatia

329

26.

Scythia

330

27.

The islands of the Euxine. The islands of the northern ocean

338

28.

Germany

345

29.

Ninety-six islands of the Gallic ocean

349

30.

Britannia

350

31.

Gallia Belgica

353

32.

Gallia Lugdunensis

355

33.

Gallia Aquitanica

357

34.

Nearer Spain, its coast along the Gallic ocean

360

35.

Lusitania

363

36.

The islands in the Atlantic ocean

367

37.

The general measurement of Europe

369

BOOK V.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

1.

The two Mauritanias

374

2.

Numidia

387

3.

Africa

388

4.

The Syrtes

391

5.

Cyrenaica

395

6.

Libya Mareotis

401

7.

The islands in the vicinity of Africa

402

8.

Countries on the other side of Africa

403

9.

Egypt and Thebais

406

10.

The River Nile

410

11.

The cities of Egypt

416

12.

The coasts of Arabia, situate on the Egyptian Sea

422

13.

Syria

423

14.

Idumæa, Palæstina, and Samaria

424

15.

Judæa

427

16.

Decapolis

431

17.

Phœnice

433

18.

Syria Antiochia

436

19.

The remaining parts of Syria

438

20.

The Euphrates

441

21.

Syria upon the Euphrates

443

22.

Cilicia and the adjoining nations

446

23.

Isauria and the Homonades

450

24.

Pisidia

451

25.

Lycaonia

ib.

26.

Pamphylia

452

27.

Mount Taurus

453

28.

Lycia

455

29.

Caria

458

30.

Lydia

465

31.

Ionia

466

32.

Æolis

472

33.

Troas and the adjoining nations

476

34.

The islands which lie in front of Asia

479

35.

Cyprus

480

36.

Rhodes

483

37.

Samos

485

38.

Chios

486

39.

Lesbos

487

40.

The Hellespont and Mysia

488

41.

Phrygia

490

42.

Galatia and the adjoining nations

491

43.

Bithynia

493

44.

The islands of the Propontis

496

NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY

BOOK I.34

DEDICATION.

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS TO HIS FRIEND TITUS VESPASIAN.

This treatise on Natural History, a novel work in Roman literature, which I have just completed, I have taken the liberty to dedicate to you, most gracious35 Emperor, an appellation peculiarly suitable to you, while, on account of his age, that of great is more appropriate to your Father;—

“For still thou ne’er wouldst quite despise

The trifles that I write36;”

if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow-countryman37, a military term, which you well understand. For he, as you know, when his napkins had been changed38, expressed himself a little harshly, from his anxiety to show his friendship for his dear little Veranius and Fabius39. At the same time this my importunity may effect, what you complained of my not having done in another too forward epistle of mine; it will put upon record, and let all the world know, with what kindness you exercise the imperial dignity. You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the tribunate; and, what is still more honourable, whilst you held them in conjunction with your Father, you have presided over the Equestrian order, and been the Prefect of the Prætorians40: all this you have done for the service of the Republic, and, at the same time, have regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a messmate. Nor has the extent of your prosperity produced any change in you, except that it has given you the power of doing good to the utmost of your wishes. And whilst all these circumstances increase the veneration which other persons feel for you, with respect to myself, they have made me so bold, as to wish to become more familiar. You must, therefore, place this to your own account, and blame yourself for any fault of this kind that I may commit.

But, although I have laid aside my blushes41, I have not gained my object; for you still awe me, and keep me at a distance, by the majesty of your understanding. In no one does the force of eloquence and of tribunitian oratory blaze out more powerfully! With what glowing language do you thunder forth the praises of your Father! How dearly do you love your Brother! How admirable is your talent for poetry! What a fertility of genius do you possess, so as to enable you to imitate your Brother42! But who is there that is bold enough to form an estimate on these points, if he is to be judged by you, and, more especially, if you are challenged to do so? For the case of those who merely publish their works is very different from that of those who expressly dedicate them to you. In the former case I might say, Emperor! why do you read these things? They are written only for the common people, for farmers or mechanics, or for those who have nothing else to do; why do you trouble yourself with them? Indeed, when I undertook this work, I did not expect that you would sit in judgement upon me43; I considered your situation much too elevated for you to descend to such an office. Besides, we possess the right of openly rejecting the opinion of men of learning. M. Tullius himself, whose genius is beyond all competition, uses this privilege; and, remarkable as it may appear, employs an advocate in his own defence:—“I do not write for very learned people; I do not wish my works to be read by Manius Persius, but by Junius Congus44.” And if Lucilius, who first introduced the satirical style45, applied such a remark to himself, and if Cicero thought proper to borrow it, and that more especially in his treatise “De Republica,” how much reason have I to do so, who have such a judge to defend myself against! And by this dedication I have deprived myself of the benefit of challenge46; for it is a very different thing whether a person has a judge given him by lot, or whether he voluntarily selects one; and we always make more preparation for an invited guest, than for one that comes in unexpectedly.

When the candidates for office, during the heat of the canvass, deposited the fine47 in the hands of Cato, that determined opposer of bribery, rejoicing as he did in his being rejected from what he considered to be foolish honours, they professed to do this out of respect to his integrity; the greatest glory which a man could attain. It was on this occasion that Cicero uttered the noble ejaculation, “How happy are you, Marcus Porcius, of whom no one dares to ask what is dishonourable48!” When L. Scipio Asiaticus appealed to the tribunes, among whom was Gracchus, he expressed full confidence that he should obtain an acquittal, even from a judge who was his enemy. Hence it follows, that he who appoints his own judge must absolutely submit to the decision; this choice is therefore termed an appeal49.

I am well aware, that, placed as you are in the highest station, and gifted with the most splendid eloquence and the most accomplished mind, even those who come to pay their respects to you, do it with a kind of veneration: on this account I ought to be careful that what is dedicated to you should be worthy of you. But the country people, and, indeed, some whole nations offer milk to the Gods50, and those who cannot procure frankincense substitute in its place salted cakes; for the Gods are not dissatisfied when they are worshiped by every one to the best of his ability. But my temerity will appear the greater by the consideration, that these volumes, which I dedicate to you, are of such inferior importance. For they do not admit of the display of genius, nor, indeed, is mine one of the highest order; they admit of no excursions, nor orations, nor discussions, nor of any wonderful adventures, nor any variety of transactions, nor, from the barrenness of the matter, of anything particularly pleasant in the narration, or agreeable to the reader. The nature of things, and life as it actually exists, are described in them; and often the lowest department of it; so that, in very many cases, I am obliged to use rude and foreign, or even barbarous terms, and these often require to be introduced by a kind of preface. And, besides this, my road is not a beaten track, nor one which the mind is much disposed to travel over. There is no one among us who has ever attempted it, nor is there any one individual among the Greeks who has treated of all the topics. Most of us seek for nothing but amusement in our studies, while others are fond of subjects that are of excessive subtilty, and completely involved in obscurity. My object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks include in the Encyclopædia51, which, however, are either not generally known or are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits. And there are other matters which many writers have given so much in detail that we quite loathe them. It is, indeed, no easy task to give novelty to what is old, and authority to what is new; brightness to what is become tarnished, and light to what is obscure; to render what is slighted acceptable, and what is doubtful worthy of our confidence; to give to all a natural manner, and to each its peculiar nature. It is sufficiently honourable and glorious to have been willing even to make the attempt, although it should prove unsuccessful. And, indeed, I am of opinion, that the studies of those are more especially worthy of our regard, who, after having overcome all difficulties, prefer the useful office of assisting others to the mere gratification of giving pleasure; and this is what I have already done in some of my former works. I confess it surprises me, that T. Livius, so celebrated an author as he is, in one of the books of his history of the city from its origin, should begin with this remark, “I have now obtained a sufficient reputation, so that I might put an end to my work, did not my restless mind require to be supported by employment52.” Certainly he ought to have composed this work, not for his own glory, but for that of the Roman name, and of the people who were the conquerors of all other nations. It would have been more meritorious to have persevered in his labours from his love of the work, than from the gratification which it afforded himself, and to have accomplished it, not for his own sake, but for that of the Roman people.

I have included in thirty-six53 books 20,000 topics, all worthy of attention, (for, as Domitius Piso54 says, we ought to make not merely books, but valuable collections,) gained by the perusal of about 2000 volumes, of which a few only are in the hands of the studious, on account of the obscurity of the subjects, procured by the careful perusal of 100 select authors55; and to these I have made considerable additions of things, which were either not known to my predecessors, or which have been lately discovered. Nor can I doubt but that there still remain many things which I have omitted; for I am a mere mortal, and one that has many occupations. I have, therefore, been obliged to compose this work at interrupted intervals, indeed during the night, so that you will find that I have not been idle even during this period. The day I devote to you, exactly portioning out my sleep to the necessity of my health, and contenting myself with this reward, that while we are musing56 on these subjects (according to the remark of Varro), we are adding to the length of our lives; for life properly consists in being awake.

In consideration of these circumstances and these difficulties, I dare promise nothing; but you have done me the most essential service in permitting me to dedicate my work to you. Nor does this merely give a sanction to it, but it determines its value; for things are often conceived to be of great value, solely because they are consecrated in temples.

I have given a full account of all your family—your Father, yourself, and your Brother, in a history of our own times, beginning where Aufidius Bassus concludes57. You will ask, Where is it? It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed58; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.

You may judge of my taste from my having inserted, in the beginning of my book, the names of the authors that I have consulted. For I consider it to be courteous and to indicate an ingenuous modesty, to acknowledge the sources whence we have derived assistance, and not to act as most of those have done whom I have examined. For I must inform you, that in comparing various authors with each other, I have discovered, that some of the most grave and of the latest writers have transcribed, word for word, from former works, without making any acknowledgement; not avowedly rivalling them, in the manner of Virgil, or with the candour of Cicero, who, in his treatise “De Republica59,” professes to coincide in opinion with Plato, and in his Essay on Consolation for his Daughter, says that he follows Crantor, and, in his Offices60, Panæcius; volumes, which, as you well know, ought not merely to be always in our hands, but to be learned by heart. For it is indeed the mark of a perverted mind and a bad disposition, to prefer being caught in a theft to returning what we have borrowed, especially when we have acquired capital, by usurious interest61.

The Greeks were wonderfully happy in their titles. One work they called Κηρίον, which means that it was as sweet as a honeycomb; another Κέρας Ἀμαλθείας, or Cornu copiæ, so that you might expect to get even a draught of pigeon’s milk from it62. Then they have their Flowers, their Muses, Magazines, Manuals, Gardens, Pictures, and Sketches63, all of them titles for which a man might be tempted even to forfeit his bail. But when you enter upon the works, O ye Gods and Goddesses! how full of emptiness! Our duller countrymen have merely their Antiquities, or their Examples, or their Arts. I think one of the most humorous of them has his Nocturnal Studies64, a term employed by Bibaculus; a name which he richly deserved65. Varro, indeed, is not much behind him, when he calls one of his satires A Trick and a Half, and another Turning the Tables66. Diodorus was the first among the Greeks who laid aside this trifling manner and named his history The Library67. Apion, the grammarian, indeed—he whom Tiberius Cæsar called the Trumpeter of the World, but would rather seem to be the Bell of the Town-crier68,—supposed that every one to whom he inscribed any work would thence acquire immortality. I do not regret not having given my work a more fanciful title.

That I may not, however, appear to inveigh so completely against the Greeks, I should wish to be considered under the same point of view with those inventors of the arts of painting and sculpture, of whom you will find an account in these volumes, whose works, although they are so perfect that we are never satisfied with admiring them, are inscribed with a temporary title69, such as “Apelles, or Polycletus, was doing this;” implying that the work was only commenced and still imperfect, and that the artist might benefit by the criticisms that were made on it and alter any part that required it, if he had not been prevented by death. It is also a great mark of their modesty, that they inscribed their works as if they were the last which they had executed, and as still in hand at the time of their death. I think there are but three works of art which are inscribed positively with the words “such a one executed this;” of these I shall give an account in the proper place. In these cases it appears, that the artist felt the most perfect satisfaction with his work, and hence these pieces have excited the envy of every one.

I, indeed, freely admit, that much may be added to my works; not only to this, but to all which I have published. By this admission I hope to escape from the carping critics70, and I have the more reason to say this, because I hear that there are certain Stoics and Logicians71, and also Epicureans (from the Grammarians72 I expected as much), who are big with something against the little work I published on Grammar73; and that they have been carrying these abortions for ten years together—a longer pregnancy this than the elephant’s74. But I well know, that even a woman once wrote against Theophrastus, a man so eminent for his eloquence that he obtained his name, which signifies the Divine speaker75, and that from this circumstance originated the proverb of choosing a tree to hang oneself76.

I cannot refrain from quoting the words of Cato the censor, which are so pertinent to this point. It appears from them, that even Cato, who wrote commentaries on military discipline77, and who had learned the military art under Africanus, or rather under Hannibal (for he could not endure Africanus78, who, when he was his general, had borne away the triumph from him), that Cato, I say, was open to the attacks of such as caught at reputation for themselves by detracting from the merits of others. And what does he say in his book? “I know, that when I shall publish what I have written, there will be many who will do all they can to depreciate it, and, especially, such as are themselves void of all merit; but I let their harangues glide by me.” Nor was the remark of Plancus79 a bad one, when Asinius Pollio80 was said to be preparing an oration against him, which was to be published either by himself or his children, after the death of Plancus, in order that he might not be able to answer it: “It is only ghosts that fight with the dead.” This gave such a blow to the oration, that in the opinion of the learned generally, nothing was ever thought more scandalous. Feeling myself, therefore, secure against these vile slanderers81, a name elegantly composed by Cato, to express their slanderous and vile disposition (for what other object have they, but to wrangle and breed quarrels?), I will proceed with my projected work.

And because the public good requires that you should be spared as much as possible from all trouble, I have subjoined to this epistle the contents of each of the following books82, and have used my best endeavours to prevent your being obliged to read them all through. And this, which was done for your benefit, will also serve the same purpose for others, so that any one may search for what he wishes, and may know where to find it. This has been already done among us by Valerius Soranus, in his work which he entitled “On Mysteries83.”

The 1st book is the Preface of the Work, dedicated to Titus Vespasian Cæsar.

The 2nd is on the World, the Elements, and the Heavenly Bodies84.

The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th books are on Geography, in which is contained an account of the situation of the different countries, the inhabitants, the seas, towns, harbours, mountains, rivers, and dimensions, and the various tribes, some of which still exist and others have disappeared.

The 7th is on Man, and the Inventions of Man.

The 8th on the various kinds of Land Animals.

The 9th on Aquatic Animals.

The 10th on the various kinds of Birds.

The 11th on Insects.

The 12th on Odoriferous Plants.

The 13th on Exotic Trees.

The 14th on Vines.

The 15th on Fruit Trees.

The 16th on Forest Trees.

The 17th on Plants raised in nurseries or gardens.

The 18th on the nature of Fruits and the Cerealia, and the pursuits of the Husbandman.

The 19th on Flax, Broom85, and Gardening.

The 20th on the Cultivated Plants that are proper for food and for medicine.

The 21st on Flowers and Plants that are used for making Garlands.

The 22nd on Garlands, and Medicines made from Plants.

The 23rd on Medicines made from Wine and from cultivated Trees.

The 24th on Medicines made from Forest Trees.

The 25th on Medicines made from Wild Plants.

The 26th on New Diseases, and Medicines made, for certain Diseases, from Plants.

The 27th on some other Plants and Medicines.

The 28th on Medicines procured from Man and from large Animals.

The 29th on Medical Authors, and on Medicines from other Animals.

The 30th on Magic, and Medicines for certain parts of the Body.

The 31st on Medicines from Aquatic Animals.

The 32nd on the other properties of Aquatic Animals.

The 33rd on Gold and Silver.

The 34th on Copper and Lead, and the workers of Copper.

The 35th on Painting, Colours, and Painters.

The 36th on Marbles and Stones.

The 37th on Gems.

BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

[I have adopted the division of the chapters from Hardouin, as given in the editions of Valpy, Lemaire, Ajasson, and Sillig; the Roman figures, enclosed between brackets, are the numbers of the chapters in Dalechamps, De Laët, Gronovius, Holland, and Poinsinet. The titles of the chapters are nearly the same with those in Valpy, Lemaire, and Ajasson.]

CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHETHER THE WORLD BE FINITE, AND WHETHER THERE BE MORE THAN ONE WORLD.

The world86, and whatever that be which we otherwise call the heavens87, by the vault of which all things are enclosed, we must conceive to be a Deity88, to be eternal, without bounds, neither created, nor subject, at any time, to destruction89. To inquire what is beyond it is no concern of man, nor can the human mind form any conjecture respecting it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds, all in all; indeed including everything in itself; finite, yet like what is infinite; the most certain of all things, yet like what is uncertain, externally and internally embracing all things in itself; it is the work of nature, and itself constitutes nature90.

It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with attempts to measure the world, and to publish these attempts; or, like others, to argue from what they have made out, that there are innumerable other worlds, and that we must believe there to be so many other natures, or that, if only one nature produced the whole, there will be so many suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains of other heavenly bodies. As if the same question would not recur at every step of our inquiry, anxious as we must be to arrive at some termination; or, as if this infinity, which we ascribe to nature, the former of all things, cannot be more easily comprehended by one single formation, especially when that is so extensive. It is madness, perfect madness, to go out of this world and to search for what is beyond it, as if one who is ignorant of his own dimensions could ascertain the measure of any thing else, or as if the human mind could see what the world itself cannot contain.

CHAP. 2. (2.)—OF THE FORM OF THE WORLD91.

That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from the name which has been uniformly given to it, as well as from numerous natural arguments. For not only does a figure of this kind return everywhere into itself92 and sustain itself, also including itself, requiring no adjustments, not sensible of either end or beginning in any of its parts, and is best fitted for that motion, with which, as will appear hereafter, it is continually turning round; but still more, because we perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every part, convex and central, which could not be the case were it of any other figure.

CHAP. 3. (3.)—OF ITS NATURE; WHENCE THE NAME IS DERIVED.

The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove, that this globe is carried round in the space of twenty-four hours, in an eternal and never-ceasing circuit, and with incredible swiftness93. I am not able to say, whether the sound caused by the whirling about of so great a mass be excessive, and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can perceive, nor, indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all carried along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may not produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweetness94. To us, who are in the interior, the world appears to glide silently along, both by day and by night.

Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there are impressed on the heavens innumerable figures of animals and of all kinds of objects, and that its surface is not perfectly polished like the eggs of birds, as some celebrated authors assert95. For we find that the seeds of all bodies fall down from it, principally into the ocean, and, being mixed together, that a variety of monstrous forms are in this way frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to the eye; for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of a bear, of a bull, and of a letter96; while, in the middle of them, over our heads, there is a white circle97.

(4.) With respect to the name, I am influenced by the unanimous opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks, from its being ornamented, have termed κόσμος, we, from its perfect and complete elegance, have termed mundus. The name cœlum, no doubt, refers to its being engraven, as it were, with the stars, as Varro suggests98. In confirmation of this idea we may adduce the Zodiac99, in which are twelve figures of animals; through them it is that the sun has continued its course for so many ages.

CHAP. 4. (5.)—OF THE ELEMENTS100 AND THE PLANETS101.

I do not find that any one has doubted that there are four elements. The highest of these is supposed to be fire, and hence proceed the eyes of so many glittering stars. The next is that spirit, which both the Greeks and ourselves call by the same name, air102. It is by the force of this vital principle, pervading all things and mingling with all, that the earth, together with the fourth element, water, is balanced in the middle of space. These are mutually bound together, the lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they cannot fly off; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending upwards, the heavier are so suspended, that they cannot fall down. Thus, by an equal tendency in an opposite direction, each of them remains in its appropriate place, bound together by the never-ceasing revolution of the world, which always turning on itself, the earth falls to the lowest part and is in the middle of the whole, while it remains suspended in the centre103, and, as it were, balancing this centre, in which it is suspended. So that it alone remains immoveable, whilst all things revolve round it, being connected with every other part, whilst they all rest upon it.

(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are suspended, in this aërial spirit, seven stars104, separated by determinate spaces, which, on account of their motion, we call wandering, although, in reality, none are less so105. The sun is carried along in the midst of these, a body of great size and power, the ruler, not only of the seasons and of the different climates, but also of the stars themselves and of the heavens106. When we consider his operations, we must regard him as the life, or rather the mind of the universe, the chief regulator and the God of nature; he also lends his light to the other stars107. He is most illustrious and excellent, beholding all things and hearing all things, which, I perceive, is ascribed to him exclusively by the prince of poets, Homer108.

CHAP. 5. (7.)—OF GOD109.

I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to inquire into the figure and form of God. For whatever God be, if there be any other God110, and wherever he exists, he is all sense, all sight, all hearing, all life, all mind111, and all within himself. To believe that there are a number of Gods, derived from the virtues and vices of man112, as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour, Clemency, and Fidelity; or, according to the opinion of Democritus, that there are only two, Punishment and Reward113, indicates still greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is, mindful of its own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that every one might have recourse to that which he supposed himself to stand more particularly in need of114. Hence we find different names employed by different nations; the inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate them. It was from this cause that a temple was dedicated to Fever, at the public expense, on the Palatine Hill115, and to Orbona116, near the Temple of the Lares, and that an altar was elected to Good Fortune on the Esquiline. Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that there is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings, since each individual makes a separate God for himself, adopting his own Juno and his own Genius117. And there are nations who make Gods of certain animals, and even certain obscene things118, which are not to be spoken of, swearing by stinking meats and such like. To suppose that marriages are contracted between the Gods, and that, during so long a period, there should have been no issue from them, that some of them should be old and always grey-headed and others young and like children, some of a dark, complexion, winged, lame, produced from eggs, living and dying on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and foolish. But it is the height of impudence to imagine, that adultery takes place between them, that they have contests and quarrels, and that there are Gods of theft and of various crimes119. To assist man is to be a God; this is the path to eternal glory. This is the path which the Roman nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is now pursued by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his sons. This was the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it, to regard them as Gods120. For the names of all the Gods, as well as of the stars that I have mentioned above121, have been derived from their services to mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury, and the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that they have reference to certain natural phenomena122?

But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs123. Can we believe, or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by such a disagreeable and complicated office? It is not easy to determine which opinion would be most for the advantage of mankind, since we observe some who have no respect for the Gods, and others who carry it to a scandalous excess. They are slaves to foreign ceremonies; they carry on their fingers the Gods and the monsters whom they worship124; they condemn and they lay great stress on certain kinds of food; they impose on themselves dreadful ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. They do not marry or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the sanction of their sacred rites. There are others, on the contrary, who will cheat in the very Capitol, and will forswear themselves even by Jupiter Tonans125, and while these thrive in their crimes, the others torment themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

Among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for themselves a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism concerning God is still increased. For all over the world, in all places, and at all times, Fortune is the only god whom every one invokes; she alone is spoken of, she alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty; she alone is in our thoughts, is praised and blamed, and is loaded with reproaches; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality of mankind to be blind, wandering, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often favouring the unworthy. To her are referred all our losses and all our gains, and in casting up the accounts of mortals she alone balances the two pages of our sheet126. We are so much in the power of chance, that chance itself is considered as a God, and the existence of God becomes doubtful.

But there are others who reject this principle and assign events to the influence of the stars127, and to the laws of our nativity; they suppose that God, once for all, issues his decrees and never afterwards interferes. This opinion begins to gain ground, and both the learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. Hence we have the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions of soothsayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens128. The late Emperor Augustus129 relates, that he put the left shoe on the wrong foot, the day when he was near being assaulted by his soldiers130. And such things as these so embarrass improvident mortals, that among all of them this alone is certain, that there is nothing certain, and that there is nothing more proud or more wretched than man. For other animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence, for which the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-sufficient; and this one circumstance renders their lot more especially preferable, that they never think about glory, or money, or ambition, and, above all, that they never reflect on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods superintend human affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of crimes, although sometimes tardy, from the Deity being occupied with such a mass of business, is never entirely remitted, and that the human race was not made the next in rank to himself, in order that they might be degraded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes the great comfort in this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity cannot do everything. For he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it, which, so numerous are the evils of life, has been granted to man as our chief good. Nor can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those who are dead; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall not have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honours shall not have enjoyed them; nor has he any influence over past events but to cause them to be forgotten. And, if we illustrate the nature of our connexion with God by a less serious argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty, and many other things of this kind. By these considerations the power of Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what we call God. It is not foreign to the subject to have digressed into these matters, familiar as they are to every one, from the continual discussions that take place respecting God131.

CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

Let us return from this digression to the other parts of nature. The stars which are described as fixed in the heavens132, are not, as the vulgar suppose, attached each of them to different individuals133, the brighter to the rich, those that are less so to the poor, and the dim to the aged, shining according to the lot of the individual, and separately assigned to mortals; for they have neither come into existence, nor do they perish in connexion with particular persons, nor does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. We are not so closely connected with the heavens as that the shining of the stars is affected by our death134. When they are supposed to shoot or fall135, they throw out, by the force of their fire, as if from an excess of nutriment, the superabundance of the humour which they have absorbed, as we observe to take place from the oil in our lamps, when they are burning136. The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal, being interwoven, as it were, with the world, and, by this union, rendering it solid; but they exert their most powerful influence on the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be known by the clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as we shall point out in the proper place137. The account of the circles of the heavens will be better understood when we come to speak of the earth, since they have all a reference to it; except what has been discovered respecting the Zodiac, which I shall now detail.

Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad138, is said to have been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus opened the road to a correct knowledge of the subject139. Afterwards Cleostratus made the signs in it, first marking those of Aries and Sagittarius; Atlas had formed the sphere long before this time140. But now, leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must treat of the bodies that are situated between the earth and the heavens141.

It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the largest circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing it142. The course of all the planets, and among others of the Sun, and the Moon, is in the contrary direction to that of the heavens143, that is towards the left, while the heavens are rapidly carried about to the right144. And although, by the stars constantly revolving with immense velocity, they are raised up, and hurried on to the part where they set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in an opposite direction145; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling of the heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas now it is divided and separated and beaten into small pieces, by the opposite motion of the different stars. Saturn is a star of a cold and rigid nature, while the orbit of Jupiter is much lower, and is carried round in twelve years146. The next star, Mars, which some persons call Hercules147, is of a fiery and burning nature, and from its nearness to the sun is carried round in little less than two years148. In consequence of the excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of Saturn, Jupiter, which is interposed between the two, is tempered by both of them, and is thus rendered salutary. The path of the Sun consists of 360 degrees; but, in order that the shadow may return to the same point of the dial149, we are obliged to add, in each year, five days and the fourth part of a day. On this account an intercalary day is given to every fifth year150, that the period of the seasons may agree with that of the Sun.

Below the Sun151 revolves the great star called Venus, wandering with an alternate motion152, and, even in its surnames, rivalling the Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the day and rises in the morning, it receives the name of Lucifer, as if it were another sun, hastening on the day. On the contrary, when it shines in the west, it is named Vesper, as prolonging the light, and performing the office of the moon. Pythagoras, the Samian, was the first who discovered its nature153, about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the City154. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy is so considerable, that it is the only star which produces a shadow by its rays. There has, consequently, been great interest made for its name; some have called it the star of Juno155, others of Isis, and others of the Mother of the Gods. By its influence everything in the earth is generated. For, as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles everything with its genial dew, and not only matures the productions of the earth, but stimulates all living things156. It completes the circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the sun more than 46 degrees, according to Timæus157.

Similarly circumstanced, but by no means equal in size and in power, next to it, is the star Mercury, by some called Apollo158; it is carried in a lower orbit, and moves in a course which is quicker by nine days, shining sometimes before the rising of the sun, and at other times after its setting, but never going farther from it than 23 degrees159, as we learn from Timæus and Sosigenes160. The nature of these two stars is peculiar, and is not the same with those mentioned above, for those are seen to recede from the sun through one-third or one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen opposite to it. They have also other larger circuits, in which they make their complete revolutions, as will be described in the account of the great year161.

(9.) But the Moon162, which is the last of the stars, and the one the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided by nature for darkness, excels all the others in its admirable qualities. By the variety of appearances which it assumes, it puzzles the observers, mortified that they should be the most ignorant concerning that star which is the nearest to them. She is always either waxing or waning; sometimes her disc is curved into horns, sometimes it is divided into two equal portions, and at other times it is swelled out into a full orb; sometimes she appears spotted163 and suddenly becomes very bright; she appears very large with her full orb and suddenly becomes invisible; now continuing during all the night, now rising late, and now aiding the light of the sun during a part of the day; becoming eclipsed and yet being visible while she is eclipsed; concealing herself at the end of the month and yet not supposed to be eclipsed164. Sometimes she is low down, sometimes she is high up, and that not according to one uniform course, being at one time raised up to the heavens, at other times almost contiguous to the mountains; now elevated in the north, now depressed in the south; all which circumstances having been noticed by Endymion, a report was spread about, that he was in love with the moon165. We are not indeed sufficiently grateful to those, who, with so much labour and care, have enlightened us with this light166; while, so diseased is the human mind, that we take pleasure in writing the annals of blood and slaughter, in order that the crimes of men may be made known to those who are ignorant of the constitution of the world itself.

Being nearest to the axis167, and therefore having the smallest orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-third part of a day168, through the same space for which Saturn, the highest of the planets, as was stated above, requires thirty years. After remaining for two days in conjunction with the sun, on the thirtieth day she again very slowly emerges to pursue her accustomed course169. I know not whether she ought not to be considered as our instructress in everything that can be known respecting the heavens; as that the year is divided into the twelve divisions of the months, since she follows the sun for the same number of times, until he returns to the commencement of his course; and that her brightness, as well as that of the other stars, is regulated by that of the sun, if indeed they all of them shine by light borrowed from him, such as we see floating about, when it is reflected from the surface of water. On this account it is that she dissolves so much moisture, by a gentle and less perfect force, and adds to the quantity of that which the rays of the sun consume170. On this account she appears with an unequal light, because being full only when she is in opposition, on all the remaining days she shows only so much of herself to the earth as she receives light from the sun171. She is not seen in conjunction, because, at that time, she sends back the whole stream of light to the source whence she has derived it. That the stars generally are nourished by the terrestrial moisture is evident, because, when the moon is only half visible she is sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing moisture not having been powerful enough; for the spots are nothing else than the dregs of the earth drawn up along with the moisture172. (10.) But her eclipses and those of the sun, the most wonderful of all the phenomena of nature, and which are like prodigies, serve to indicate the magnitude of these bodies and the shadow173 which they cast.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON AND THE SUN.

For it is evident that the sun is hid by the intervention174 of the moon, and the moon by the opposition174 of the earth, and that these changes are mutual, the moon, by her interposition174, taking the rays of the sun from the earth, and the earth from the moon. As she advances darkness is suddenly produced, and again the sun is obscured by her shade; for night is nothing more than the shade of the earth. The figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an inverted top175; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it does not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star which is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this kind always terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when very lofty, shows that shadows do not extend beyond a certain distance; their limit appears to be the termination of the air and the commencement of the æther. Above the moon everything is pure and full of an eternal light. The stars are visible to us in the night, in the same way that other luminous bodies are seen in the dark. It is from these causes that the moon is eclipsed during the night176. The two kinds of eclipses are not, however, at the stated monthly periods, on account of the obliquity of the zodiac, and the irregularly wandering course of the moon, as stated above; besides that the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at the same points177.

CHAP. 8. (11.)—OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.

This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the heavens, and by contemplating the world as it were from thence, it discloses to us the magnitude of the three greatest bodies in nature178. For the sun could not be entirely concealed from the earth, by the intervention of the moon, if the earth were greater than the moon179. And the vast size of the third body, the sun, is manifest from that of the other two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize its size, by arguing from its visible appearance, or from any conjectures of the mind; it must be immense, because the shadows of rows of trees, extending for any number of miles, are disposed in right lines180, as if the sun were in the middle of space. Also, because, at the equinox, he is vertical to all the inhabitants of the southern districts at the same time181; also, because the shadows of all the people who live on this side of the tropic fall, at noon, towards the north, and, at sunrise, point to the west. But this could not be the case unless the sun were much greater than the earth; nor, unless it much exceeded Mount Ida in breadth, could he be seen when he rises, passing considerably beyond it to the right and to the left, especially, considering that it is separated by so great an interval182.

The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument of the sun’s magnitude, as it also does of the small size of the earth183. For there are shadows of three figures, and it is evident, that if the body which produces the shadow be equal to the light, then it will be thrown off in the form of a pillar, and have no termination. If the body be greater than the light, the shadow will be in the form of an inverted cone184 the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at the same time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the light, then we shall have the figure of a pyramid185, terminating in a point. Now of this last kind is the shadow which produces the eclipse of the moon, and this is so manifest that there can be no doubt remaining, that the earth is exceeded in magnitude by the sun, a circumstance which is indeed indicated by the silent declaration of nature herself. For why does he recede from us at the winter half of the year186? That by the darkness of the nights the earth may be refreshed, which otherwise would be burned up, as indeed it is in certain parts; so great is his size.

CHAP. 9. (12.)—AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE ON THE HEAVENS BY DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS.

The first among the Romans, who explained to the people at large the cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sulpicius Gallus, who was consul along with Marcellus; and when he was only a military tribune he relieved the army from great anxiety the day before king Perseus was conquered by Paulus187; for he was brought by the general into a public assembly, in order to predict the eclipse, of which he afterwards gave an account in a separate treatise. Among the Greeks, Thales the Milesian first investigated the subject, in the fourth year of the forty-eighth olympiad, predicting the eclipse of the sun which took place in the reign of Alyattes, in the 170th year of the City188. After them Hipparchus calculated the course of both these stars for the term of 600 years189, including the months, days, and hours, the situation of the different places and the aspects adapted to each of them; all this has been confirmed by experience, and could only be acquired by partaking, as it were, in the councils of nature. These were indeed great men, superior to ordinary mortals, who having discovered the laws of these divine bodies, relieved the miserable mind of man from the fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling some dreadful events or the destruction of the stars. This alarm is freely acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pindar, as being produced by an eclipse of the sun190. And with respect to the eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to witchcraft, and therefore endeavour to aid her by producing discordant sounds. In consequence of this kind of terror it was that Nicias, the general of the Athenians, being ignorant of the cause, was afraid to lead out the fleet, and brought great distress on his troops191. Hail to your genius, ye interpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of things, and who have discovered a mode of reasoning by which ye have conquered both gods and men192! For who is there, in observing these things and seeing the labours193 which the stars are compelled to undergo (since we have chosen to apply this term to them), that would not cheerfully submit to his fate, as one born to die? I shall now, in a brief and summary manner, touch on those points in which we are agreed, giving the reasons where it is necessary to do so; for this is not a work of profound argument, nor is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a probable cause for everything, than to give a complete account of a few of them only.

CHAP. 10. (13.)—ON THE RECURRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND THE MOON.

It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole revolution in the space of 223 months194, that the eclipse of the sun takes place only at the conclusion or the commencement of a lunation, which is termed conjunction195, while an eclipse of the moon takes place only when she is at the full, and is always a little farther advanced than the preceding eclipse196. Now there are eclipses of both these stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at stated days and hours; and when they are above it197 they are not always visible, sometimes on account of the clouds, but more frequently, from the globe of the earth being opposed to the vault of the heavens198. It was discovered two hundred years ago, by the sagacity of Hipparchus, that the moon is sometimes eclipsed after an interval of five months, and the sun after an interval of seven199; also, that he becomes invisible, while above the horizon, twice in every thirty days, but that this is seen in different places at different times. But the most wonderful circumstance is, that while it is admitted that the moon is darkened by the shadow of the earth, this occurs at one time on its western, and at another time on its eastern side. And farther, that although, after the rising of the sun, that darkening shadow ought to be below the earth, yet it has once happened, that the moon has been eclipsed in the west, while both the luminaries have been above the horizon200. And as to their both being invisible in the space of fifteen days, this very thing happened while the Vespasians were emperors, the father being consul for the third time, and the son for the second201.

CHAP. 11. (14.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE MOON.

It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned from the sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east; when she is waning, towards the west. Also, that, from the second day after the change, she adds 47^1⁄2 minutes202 each day, until she is full, and again decreases at the same rate, and that she always becomes invisible when she is within 14 degrees of the sun. This is an argument of the greater size of the planets than of the moon, since these emerge when they are at the distance of 7 degrees only203. But their altitude causes them to appear much smaller, as we observe that, during the day, the brightness of the sun prevents those bodies from being seen which are fixed in the firmament, although they shine then as well as in the night: that this is the case is proved by eclipses, and by descending into very deep wells.

CHAP. 12. (15.)—OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF THEIR ASPECTS204.

The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated above the sun205, are visible when they come into conjunction with him. They rise visibly206 in the morning, when they are not more than 11 degrees from the sun207; they are afterwards directed by the contact of his rays208, and when they attain the trine aspect, at the distance of 120 degrees, they take their morning stationary positions209, which are termed primary; afterwards, when they are in opposition to the sun, they rise at the distance of 180 degrees from him. And again advancing on the other side to the 120th degree, they attain their evening stations, which are termed secondary, until the sun having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their evening setting becomes no longer visible210. Mars, as being nearer to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadrature, at the distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives its name, being termed, from the two risings, respectively the first and the second nonagenarian211. This planet passes from one station to another in six months, or is two months in each sign; the two other planets do not spend more than four months in passing from station to station.

The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in their evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun, they rise in the morning the same number of degrees distant from him. After having arrived at their point of greatest elongation212, they then follow the sun, and having overtaken him at their morning setting, they become invisible and pass beyond him. They then rise in the evening, at the distances which were mentioned above. After this they return back to the sun and are concealed in their evening setting. The star Venus becomes stationary when at its two points of greatest elongation, that of the morning and of the evening, according to their respective risings. The stationary points of Mercury are so very brief, that they cannot be correctly observed.

CHAP. 13.—WHY THE SAME STARS APPEAR AT SOME TIMES MORE LOFTY AND AT OTHER TIMES MORE NEAR.

The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations of the planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated by their motions, and is involved in much that is wonderful; especially, when we observe that they change their size and colour, and that the same stars at one time approach the north, and then go to the south, and are now seen near the earth, and then suddenly approach the heavens. If on this subject I deliver opinions different from my predecessors, I acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those individuals who first pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry; let no one then ever despair of benefiting future ages.

But these things depend upon many different causes. The first cause is the nature of the circles described by the stars, which the Greeks term apsides213, for we are obliged to use Greek terms. Now each of the planets has its own circle, and this a different one from that of the world214; because the earth is placed in the centre of the heavens, with respect to the two extremities, which are called the poles, and also in that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely between them. And all these things are made evident by the infallible results which we obtain by the use of the compasses215. Hence the apsides of the planets have each of them different centres, and consequently they have different orbits and motions, since it necessarily follows, that the interior apsides are the shortest.

(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre of the earth are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter in Virgo, for Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus in Sagittarius, and for Mercury in Capricorn, each of them in the middle of these signs; while in the opposite signs, they are the lowest and nearest to the centre of the earth216. Hence it is that they appear to move more slowly when they are carried along the highest circuit; not that their actual motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed and determinate for each of them; but because it necessarily follows, that lines drawn from the highest apsis must approach nearer to each other at the centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and that the same motion seems to be at one time greater, and at another time less, according to the distance from the centre.

Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their highest apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in different signs from those mentioned above217. Saturn is in the 20th degree of Libra, Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun in the 19th of Aries, Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th of Virgo, and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.

The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the heavens, not on that of the orbits; the stars appearing to the eye to mount up and to descend through the depth of the air218. With this cause is connected that which depends on the latitude of the planets and the obliquity of the zodiac. It is through this belt that the stars which I have spoken of are carried, nor is there any part of the world habitable, except what lies under it219; the remainder, which is at the poles, being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone exceeds it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause why some animals are produced even in these desert regions of the earth. The moon also wanders the whole breadth of the zodiac, but never exceeds it. Next to these the planet Mercury moves through the greatest space; yet out of the 12 degrees (for there are so many degrees of latitude in the zodiac220), it does not pass through more than 8, nor does it go equally through these, 2 of them being in the middle of the zodiac, 4 in the upper part, and 2 in the lower part221. Next to these the Sun is carried through the middle of the zodiac, winding unequally through the two parts of his tortuous circuit222. The star Mars occupies the four middle degrees; Jupiter the middle degree and the two above it; Saturn, like the sun, occupies two223. The above is an account of the latitudes as they descend to the south or ascend to the north224. Hence it is plain that the generality of persons are mistaken in supposing the third cause of the apparent altitude to depend on the stars rising from the earth and climbing up the heavens. But to refute this opinion it is necessary to consider the subject with very great minuteness, and to embrace all the causes.

It is generally admitted, that the stars225, at the time of their evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with respect to latitude and altitude226, that they are at the commencement of both at their morning risings, and that they become stationary at the middle points of their latitudes, what are called the ecliptics227. It is, moreover, acknowledged, that their motion is increased when they are in the vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are removed to a greater altitude228; a point which is most clearly proved by the different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt that it is also increased at the morning risings229, and that the three superior planets are retarded, as they advance from the first station to the second. And since this is the case, it is evident, that the latitudes are increased from the time of their morning risings, since the motions afterwards appear to receive less addition; but they gain their altitude in the first station, since the rate of their motion then begins to diminish230, and the stars to recede.

And the reason of this must be particularly set forth. When the planets are struck by the rays of the sun, in the situation which I have described, i. e. in their quadrature, they are prevented from holding on their straight forward course, and are raised on high by the force of the fire231. This cannot be immediately perceived by the eye, and therefore they seem to be stationary, and hence the term station is derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays increases, and the vapour being beaten back forces them to recede.

This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the sun being then turned entirely from them, when they are drawn into the highest apsides; and they are then the least visible, since they are at their greatest altitude and are carried along with the least motion, as much less indeed as this takes place in the highest signs of the apsides. At the time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and becomes less as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase again until they arrive at the second station, when the altitude is also diminished; the sun’s rays then coming from the other side, the same force now therefore propels them towards the earth which before raised them into the heavens, from their former triangular aspect232. So different is the effect whether the rays strike the planets from below or come to them from above. And all these circumstances produce much more effect when they occur in the evening setting. This is the doctrine of the superior planets; that of the others is more difficult, and has never been laid down by any one before me233.

CHAP. 14. (17.)—WHY THE SAME STARS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIONS.

I must first state the cause, why the star Venus never recedes from the sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more than 23234, while they frequently return to the sun within this distance235. As they are situated below the sun, they have both of them their apsides turned in the contrary direction; their orbits are as much below the earth as those of the stars above mentioned are above it, and therefore they cannot recede any farther, since the curve of their apsides has no greater longitude236. The extreme parts of their apsides therefore assign the limits to each of them in the same manner, and compensate, as it were, for the small extent of their longitudes, by the great divergence of their latitudes237. It may be asked, why do they not always proceed as far as the 46th and the 23rd degrees respectively? They in reality do so, but the theory fails us here. For it would appear that the apsides are themselves moved, as they never pass over the sun238. When therefore they have arrived at the extremities of their orbits on either side, the stars are then supposed to have proceeded to their greatest distance; when they have been a certain number of degrees within their orbits, they are then supposed to return more rapidly, since the extreme point in each is the same. And on this account it is that the direction of their motion appears to be changed. For the superior planets are carried along the most quickly in their evening setting, while these move the most slowly; the former are at their greatest distance from the earth when they move the most slowly, the latter when they move the most quickly. The former are accelerated when nearest to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the circle; in the former the rapidity of the motion begins to diminish at their morning risings, in the latter it begins to increase; the former are retrograde from their morning to their evening station, while Venus is retrograde from the evening to the morning station. She begins to increase her latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows the sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest and her altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her latitude decreases and her altitude diminishes from her evening rising, she becomes retrograde, and at the same time decreases in her altitude from her evening station.

Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in both directions239 from his morning rising, and having followed the sun through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost stationary for four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude, and recedes from his evening setting to his morning rising. Mercury and the Moon are the only planets which descend for the same number of days that they ascend. Venus ascends for fifteen days and somewhat more; Saturn and Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and Mars in four times. So great is the variety of nature! The reason of it is, however, evident; for those planets which are forced up by the vapour of the sun likewise descend with difficulty.

CHAP. 15.—GENERAL LAWS240 OF THE PLANETS.

There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as well as the laws to which they are subject, which might be mentioned. For example, the planet Mars, whose course is the most difficult to observe241, never becomes stationary when Jupiter is in the trine aspect, very rarely when he is 60 degrees from the sun, which number is one-sixth of the circuit of the heavens242; nor does he ever rise in the same sign with Jupiter, except in Cancer and Leo. The star Mercury seldom has his evening risings in Pisces, but very frequently in Virgo, and his morning risings in Libra; he has also his morning rising in Aquarius, very rarely in Leo. He never becomes retrograde either in Taurus or in Gemini, nor until the 25th degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her double conjunction with the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while Sagittarius is the only sign in which she has sometimes no conjunction at all. The old and the new moon are visible on the same day or night in no other sign except Aries, and indeed it has happened very seldom to any one to have witnessed it. Prom this circumstance it was that the tale of Lynceus’s quick-sightedness originated243. Saturn and Mars are invisible at most for 170 days; Jupiter for 36, or, at the least, for 10 days less than this; Venus for 69, or, at the least, for 52; Mercury for 13, or, at the most, for 18244.

CHAP. 16. (18.)—THE REASON WHY THE STARS ARE OF DIFFERENT COLOURS.

The difference of their colour depends on the difference in their altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets into the vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each tinging those that approach it in each direction. A colder planet renders one that approaches it paler, one more hot renders it redder, a windy planet gives it a lowering aspect, while the sun, at the union of their apsides, or the extremity of their orbits, completely obscures them. Each of the planets has its peculiar colour245; Saturn is white, Jupiter brilliant, Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Vesper refulgent, Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild; the Sun, when he rises, is blazing, afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance of the stars, which are fixed in the firmament, is also affected by these causes. At one time we see a dense cluster of stars around the moon, when she is only half-enlightened, and when they are viewed in a serene evening; while, at another time, when the moon is full, there are so few to be seen, that we wonder whither they are fled; and this is also the case when the rays of the sun, or of any of the above-mentioned bodies246, have dazzled our sight. And, indeed, the moon herself is, without doubt, differently affected at different times by the rays of the sun; when she is entering them, the convexity of the heavens247 rendering them more feeble than when they fall upon her more directly248. Hence, when she is at a right angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened; when in the trine aspect, she presents an imperfect orb249, while, in opposition, she is full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through the same gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars that are superior to the sun250.

CHAP. 17. (19.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE SUN AND THE CAUSE OF THE IRREGULARITY OF THE DAYS.

The Sun himself is in four different states; twice the night is equal to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn, when he is opposed to the centre of the earth251, in the 8th degree of Aries and Libra252. The length of the day and the night is then twice changed, when the day increases in length, from the winter solstice in the 8th degree of Capricorn, and afterwards, when the night increases in length from the summer solstice in the 8th degree of Cancer253. The cause of this inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, since there is, at every moment of time, an equal portion of the firmament above and below the horizon. But the signs which mount directly upwards, when they rise, retain the light for a longer space, while those that are more oblique pass along more quickly.

CHAP. 18. (20.)—WHY THUNDER IS ASCRIBED TO JUPITER.

It is not generally known, what has been discovered by men who are the most eminent for their learning, in consequence of their assiduous observations of the heavens, that the fires which fall upon the earth, and receive the name of thunder-bolts, proceed from the three superior stars254, but principally from the one which is situated in the middle. It may perhaps depend on the superabundance of moisture from the superior orbit communicating with the heat from the inferior, which are expelled in this manner255; and hence it is commonly said, the thunder-bolts are darted by Jupiter. And as, in burning wood, the burnt part is cast off with a crackling noise, so does the star throw off this celestial fire, bearing the omens of future events, even the part which is thrown off not losing its divine operation. And this takes place more particularly when the air is in an unsettled state, either because the moisture which is then collected excites the greatest quantity of fire, or because the air is disturbed, as if by the parturition of the pregnant star.

CHAP. 19. (21.)—OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.

Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of the stars from the earth, and they have published as the result, that the sun is nineteen times as far from the moon, as the moon herself is from the earth256. Pythagoras, who was a man of a very sagacious mind, computed the distance from the earth to the moon to be 126,000 furlongs, that from her to the sun is double this distance, and that it is three times this distance to the twelve signs257; and this was also the opinion of our countryman, Gallus Sulpicius258.

CHAP. 20. (22.)—OF THE HARMONY OF THE STARS.

Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music, sometimes names the distance between the Earth and the Moon a tone; from her to Mercury he supposes to be half this space, and about the same from him to Venus. From her to the Sun is a tone and a half; from the Sun to Mars is a tone, the same as from the Earth to the Moon; from him there is half a tone to Jupiter, from Jupiter to Saturn also half a tone, and thence a tone and a half to the zodiac. Hence there are seven tones, which he terms the diapason harmony259, meaning the whole compass of the notes. In this, Saturn is said to move in the Doric time, Jupiter in the Phrygian260, and so forth of the rest; but this is a refinement rather amusing than useful.

CHAP. 21. (23.)—OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE WORLD.

The stadium is equal to 125 of our Roman paces, or 625 feet261. Posidonius262 supposes that there is a space of not less than 40 stadia around the earth, whence mists263, winds and clouds263 proceed; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and liquid, consisting of uninterrupted light; from the clouded region to the moon there is a space of 2,000,000 of stadia, and thence to the sun of 500,000,000264. It is in consequence of this space that the sun, notwithstanding his immense magnitude, does not burn the earth. Many persons have imagined that the clouds rise to the height of 900 stadia. These points are not completely made out, and are difficult to explain; but we have given the best account of them that has been published, and if we may be allowed, in any degree, to pursue these investigations, there is one infallible geometrical principle, which we cannot reject. Not that we can ascertain the exact dimensions (for to profess to do this would be almost the act of a madman), but that the mind may have some estimate to direct its conjectures. Now it is evident that the orbit through which the sun passes consists of nearly 366 degrees, and that the diameter is always the third part and a little less than the seventh of the circumference265. Then taking the half of this (for the earth is placed in the centre) it will follow, that nearly one-sixth part of the immense space, which the mind conceives as constituting the orbit of the sun round the earth, will compose his altitude. That of the moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course is so much shorter than that of the sun; she is therefore carried along midway between the sun and the earth266. It is astonishing to what an extent the weakness of the mind will proceed, urged on by a little success, as in the above-mentioned instance, to give full scope to its impudence! Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between the sun and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens, because he is situated midway between them; so that we may come to know the measure of the whole world in inches. For if the diameter consist of seven parts, there will be twenty-two of the same parts in the circumference; as if we could measure the heavens by a plumb-line!

The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosiris and Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar orbit (which, as I have said, is the least) consists of little more than 33 stadia; in the very large orbit of Saturn the number is double; in that of the sun, which, as we have said, is in the middle267, we have the half of the sum of these numbers. And this is indeed a very modest calculation268, since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the distance from him to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of degrees269.

CHAP. 22. (24.)—OF THE STARS WHICH APPEAR SUDDENLY, OR OF COMETS270.

A few things still remain to be said concerning the world; for stars are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves; of these there are various kinds.

(25.) The Greeks name these stars comets271; we name them Crinitæ, as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with bristles like hair. Those stars, which have a mane hanging down from their lower part, like a long beard, are named Pogoniæ272. Those that are named Acontiæ273 vibrate like a dart with a very quick motion. It was one of this kind which the Emperor Titus described in his very excellent poem, as having been seen in his fifth consulship; and this was the last of these bodies which has been observed. When they are short and pointed they are named Xiphiæ274; these are the pale kind; they shine like a sword and are without any rays; while we name those Discei275, which, being of an amber colour, in conformity with their name, emit a few rays from their margin only. A kind named Pitheus276 exhibits the figure of a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The kind named Cerastias277 has the appearance of a horn; it is like the one which was visible when the Greeks fought at Salamis. Lampadias278 is like a burning torch; Hippias279 is like a horse’s mane; it has a very rapid motion, like a circle revolving on itself. There is also a white comet, with silver hair, so brilliant that it can scarcely be looked at, exhibiting, as it were, the aspect of the Deity in a human form. There are some also that are shaggy, having the appearance of a fleece, surrounded by a kind of crown. There was one, where the appearance of a mane was changed into that of a spear; it happened in the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year of the City280. The shortest time during which any one of them has been observed to be visible is 7 days, the longest 180 days.

CHAP. 23.—THEIR NATURE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.

Some of them move about in the manner of planets281, others remain stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards the north282, not indeed in any particular portion of it, but generally in that white part of it which has obtained the name of the Milky Way. Aristotle informs us that several of them are to be seen at the same time283, but this, as far as I know, has not been observed by any one else; also that they prognosticate high winds and great heat284. They are also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole, but they have no rays proceeding from them. There was a dreadful one observed by the Æthiopians and the Egyptians, to which Typhon, a king of that period, gave his own name; it had a fiery appearance, and was twisted like a spiral; its aspect was hideous, nor was it like a star, but rather like a knot of fire285. Sometimes there are hairs attached to the planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen in the western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a terrific star, and one not easily expiated; as was the case with the civil commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also in the war of Pompey and Cæsar286. And in our own age, about the time when Claudius Cæsar was poisoned and left the Empire to Domitius Nero, and afterwards, while the latter was Emperor287, there was one which was almost constantly seen and was very frightful. It is thought important to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or from what star it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in what places it shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends something unfavourable respecting music; if it appears in the parts of the signs referred to the secret members, something respecting lewdness of manners; something respecting wit and learning, if they form a triangular or quadrangular figure with the position of some of the fixed stars; and that some one will be poisoned, if they appear in the head of either the northern or the southern serpent.

Rome is the only place in the whole world where there is a temple dedicated to a comet; it was thought by the late Emperor Augustus to be auspicious to him, from its appearing during the games which he was celebrating in honour of Venus Genetrix, not long after the death of his father Cæsar, in the College which was founded by him288. He expressed his joy in these terms: “During the very time of these games of mine, a hairy star was seen during seven days, in the part of the heavens which is under the Great Bear. It rose about the eleventh hour of the day289, was very bright, and was conspicuous in all parts of the earth. The common people supposed the star to indicate, that the soul of Cæsar was admitted among the immortal Gods; under which designation it was that the star was placed on the bust which was lately consecrated in the forum290.” This is what he proclaimed in public, but, in secret, he rejoiced at this auspicious omen, interpreting it as produced for himself; and, to confess the truth, it really proved a salutary omen for the world at large291.

Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and that they move through their proper orbits, but that they are only visible when they recede from the sun. Others suppose that they are produced by an accidental vapour together with the force of fire, and that, from this circumstance, they are liable to be dissipated292.

CHAP. 24. (26.)—THE DOCTRINE OF HIPPARCHUS293 ABOUT THE STARS.

This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently commended, as one who more especially proved the relation of the stars to man, and that our souls are a portion of heaven, discovered a new star that was produced in his own age, and, by observing its motions on the day in which it shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen, that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed. And the same individual attempted, what might seem presumptuous even in a deity, viz. to number the stars for posterity and to express their relations by appropriate names; having previously devised instruments294, by which he might mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual star. In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether they were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed their relative positions, and likewise, whether they were increased or diminished; the heavens being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be found competent to complete his plan.

CHAP. 25.—EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY OF CELESTIAL PRODIGIES; FACES, LAMPADES, AND BOLIDES295.

The faces shine brilliantly, but they are never seen excepting when they are falling296; one of these darted across the heavens, in the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when Germanicus Cæsar was exhibiting a show of gladiators297. There are two kinds of them; those which are called lampades and those which are called bolides, one of which latter was seen during the troubles at Mutina298. They differ from each other in this respect, that the faces produce a long train of light, the fore-part only being on fire; while the bolides, being entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still longer track behind them.

CHAP. 26.—TRABES CELESTES; CHASMA CŒLI.

The trabes also, which are named δοκοὶ299, shine in the same manner; one of these was seen at the time when the Lacedæmonians, by being conquered at sea, lost their influence in Greece. An opening sometimes takes place in the firmament, which is named chasma300.

CHAP. 27. (27.)—OF THE COLOURS OF THE SKY AND OF CELESTIAL FLAME.

There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is more dreaded by mortals) which falls down upon the earth301, such as was seen in the third year of the 103rd olympiad, when King Philip was disturbing Greece. But my opinion is, that these, like everything else, occur at stated, natural periods, and are not produced, as some persons imagine, from a variety of causes, such as their fine genius may suggest. They have indeed been the precursors of great evils, but I conceive that the evils occurred, not because the prodigies took place, but that these took place because the evils were appointed to occur at that period302. Their cause is obscure in consequence of their rarity, and therefore we are not as well acquainted with them as we are with the rising of the stars, which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many other things.

CHAP. 28. (28.)—OF CELESTIAL CORONÆ.

Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole days together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made of the ears of corn, or circles of various colours303; such as occurred when Augustus, while a very young man, was entering the city, after the death of his father, in order to take upon himself the great name which he assumed304. (29.) The same coronæ occur about the moon and also about the principal stars, which are stationary in the heavens.

CHAP. 29.—OF SUDDEN CIRCLES.

A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L. Opimius and L. Fabius305, and a circle in that of C. Porcius and M. Acilius. (30.) There was a little circle of a red colour in the consulship of L. Julius and P. Rutilius.

CHAP. 30.—OF UNUSUALLY LONG ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.

Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous and unusually long, such as occurred when Cæsar the Dictator was slain, and in the war against Antony, the sun remained dim for almost a whole year306.

CHAP. 31. (31.)—MANY SUNS.

And again, many suns have been seen at the same time307; not above or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never near nor opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either in the east or in the west. They are said to have been seen once at noon in the Bosphorus, and to have continued from morning until sunset. Our ancestors have frequently seen three suns at the same time308, as was the case in the consulship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucius, of L. Marcius and M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and that of M. Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen one during the reign of the late Emperor Claudius, when he was consul along with Corn. Orfitus. We have no account transmitted to us of more than three having been seen at the same time.

CHAP. 32. (32.)—MANY MOONS.

Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the consulship of Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius; they have generally been named nocturnal suns309.

CHAP. 33. (33.)—DAYLIGHT IN THE NIGHT.

A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens in the night time, as was the case in the consulship of C. Cæcilius and Cn. Papirius, and at many other times, so that there has been a kind of daylight in the night310.

CHAP. 34. (34.)—BURNING SHIELDS311.

A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east, throwing out sparks, in the consulship of L. Valerius and C. Marius312.

CHAP. 35. (35.)—AN OMINOUS APPEARANCE IN THE HEAVENS, THAT WAS SEEN ONCE ONLY.

We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and increasing as it approached the earth, until it became of the size of the moon, shining as through a cloud313; it afterwards returned into the heavens and was converted into a lampas; this occurred in the consulship of Cn. Octavius and C. Scribonius. It was seen by Silanus, the proconsul, and his attendants314.

CHAP. 36. (36.)—OF STARS WHICH MOVE ABOUT IN VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but never without some cause, nor without violent winds proceeding from the same quarter315.

CHAP. 37. (37.)—OF THE STARS WHICH ARE NAMED CASTOR AND POLLUX316.

These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen, during the night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appearance, like a star, attached to the javelins on the ramparts. They also settle on the yard-arms and other parts of ships while sailing, producing a kind of vocal sound, like that of birds flitting about. When they occur singly they are mischievous, so as even to sink the vessels, and if they strike on the lower part of the keel, setting them on fire317. When there are two of them they are considered auspicious, and are thought to predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On this account their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and they are invoked as gods. They also occasionally shine round the heads of men in the evening318, which is considered as predicting something very important. But there is great uncertainty respecting the cause of all these things, and they are concealed in the majesty of nature.

CHAP. 38. (38.)—OF THE AIR AND ON THE CAUSE OF THE SHOWERS OF STONES.

So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars. I must now give an account of the other remarkable phænomena of the heavens. For our ancestors have given the name of heavens, or, sometimes, another name, air, to all the seemingly void space, which diffuses around us this vital spirit. It is situated beneath the moon, indeed much lower, as is admitted by every one who has made observations on it, and is composed of a great quantity of air from the upper regions, mixed with a great quantity of terrestrial vapour, the two forming a compound. Hence proceed clouds, thunder and lightning of all kinds; hence also hail, frost, showers, storms and whirlwinds; hence proceed many of the evils incident to mortals, and the mutual contests of the various parts of nature. The force of the stars keeps down all terrestrial things which tend towards the heavens, and the same force attracts to itself those things which do not go there spontaneously. The showers fall, mists rise up, rivers are dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of the sun parch the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the centre. The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry with them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from on high and returns again to the same place. Winds arise which contain nothing, but which return loaded with spoils. The breathing of so many animals draws down the spirit from the higher regions; but this tends to go in a contrary direction, and the earth pours out its spirit into the void space of the heavens. Thus nature moving to and fro, as if impelled by some machine319, discord is kindled by the rapid motion of the world. Nor is the contest allowed to cease, for she is continually whirled round and lays open the causes of all things, forming an immense globe about the earth, while she again, from time to time, covers this other firmament with clouds320. This is the region of the winds. Here their nature principally originates, as well as the causes of almost all other things321; since most persons ascribe the darting of thunder and lightning to their violence. And to the same cause are assigned the showers of stones, these having been previously taken up by the wind, as well as many other bodies in the same way. On this account we must enter more at large on this subject.

CHAP. 39. (39.)—OF THE STATED SEASONS.

It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of other things which have been stated, while there are some things which are casual, or of which the reason has not yet been discovered. For who can doubt that summer and winter, and the annual revolution of the seasons are caused by the motion of the stars322? As therefore the nature of the sun is understood to influence the temperature of the year, so each of the other stars has its specific power, which produces its appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid retaining its liquid state, others, in the same fluid concreted into hoar frost, compressed into snow, or frozen into hail; some are prolific in winds, some in heat, some in vapours, some in dew, some in cold. But these bodies must not be supposed to be actually of the size which they appear, since the consideration of their immense height clearly proves, that none of them are less than the moon. Each of them exercises its influence over us by its own motions; this is particularly observable with respect to Saturn, which produces a great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is this power confined to the stars which change their situations, but is found to exist in many of the fixed stars, whenever they are impelled by the force of any of the planets, or excited by the impulse of their rays; as we find to be the case with respect to the Suculæ323, which the Greeks, in reference to their rainy nature, have termed the Hyades324. There are also certain events which occur spontaneously, and at stated periods, as the rising of the Kids325. The star Arcturus scarcely ever rises without storms of hail occurring.

CHAP. 40. (40.)—OF THE RISING OF THE DOG-STAR.

Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the sun is kindled by the rising of the Dog-star? The most powerful effects are felt on the earth from this star. When it rises, the seas are troubled, the wines in our cellars ferment, and stagnant waters are set in motion. There is a wild beast, named by the Egyptians Oryx, which, when the star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look steadfastly at it, and then to sneeze, as if it were worshiping it326. There is no doubt that dogs, during the whole of this period, are peculiarly disposed to become rabid327.

CHAP. 41. (41.)—OF THE REGULAR INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT SEASONS.

There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different degrees of certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and also in the winter solstice, when we find that a particular star is connected with the state of the weather328. It is not so much the recurrence of showers and storms, as of various circumstances, which act both upon animals and vegetables. Some are planet-struck329, and others, at stated times, are affected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or the intellect. The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn their leaves round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day of the winter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of their being distended with air330. One might wonder at this, did we not observe every day, that the plant named heliotrope always looks towards the setting sun, and is, at all hours, turned towards him, even when he is obscured by clouds331. It is certain that the bodies of oysters and of whelks332, and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size and again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain accurate observers have found out, that the entrails of the field-mouse333 correspond in number to the moon’s age, and that the very small animal, the ant, feels the power of this luminary, always resting from her labours at the change of the moon. And so much the more disgraceful is our ignorance, as every one acknowledges that the diseases in the eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and diminish according to the age of the moon. But the immensity of the heavens, divided as they are into seventy-two334 constellations, may serve as an excuse. These are the resemblances of certain things, animate and inanimate, into which the learned have divided the heavens. In these they have announced 1600 stars, as being remarkable either for their effects or their appearance; for example, in the tail of the Bull there are seven stars, which are named Vergiliæ335; in his forehead are the Suculæ; there is also Bootes, which follows the seven northern stars336.

CHAP. 42. (42.)—OF UNCERTAIN STATES OF THE WEATHER.

But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and winds, independent of these causes, since it is certain that an exhalation proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes moist, and at other times, in consequence of the vapours, like dense smoke; and also, that clouds are formed, either from the fluid rising up on high, or from the air being compressed into a fluid337. Their density and their substance is very clearly proved from their intercepting the sun’s rays, which are visible by divers, even in the deepest waters338.

CHAP. 43. (43.)—OF THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from the stars which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as we frequently observe on serene evenings, and that the air is agitated by the impulse, as darts when they are hurled whiz through the air. And when it arrives at the cloud, a discordant kind of vapour is produced, as when hot iron is plunged into water, and a wreath of smoke is evolved. Hence arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be struggling in the cloud, thunder is discharged; if it bursts out with a flame, there is a thunderbolt; if it be long in forcing out its way, it is simply a flash of lightning339. By the latter the cloud is simply rent, by the former it is shattered. Thunder is produced by the stroke given to the condensed air, and hence it is that the fire darts from the chinks of the clouds. It is possible also that the vapour, which has risen from the earth, being repelled by the stars, may produce thunder, when it is pent up in a cloud; nature restraining the sound whilst the vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape, the sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are distended with air. It is possible also that the spirit, whatever it be, may be kindled by friction, when it is so violently projected. It is possible that, by the dashing of the two clouds, the lightning may flash out, as is the case when two stones are struck against each other. But all these things appear to be casual. Hence there are thunderbolts which produce no effect, and proceed from no immediate actual cause; by these mountains and seas are struck, and no injury is done. Those which prognosticate future events proceed from on high and from stated causes, and they come from their peculiar stars340.

CHAP. 44.—THE ORIGIN OF WINDS.

In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather sudden gusts, are produced by the arid and dry vapours of the earth; that air may also be exhaled from water, which can neither be condensed into a mist, nor compressed into a cloud; that it may be also driven forward by the impulse of the sun, since by the term ‘wind’ we mean nothing more than a current of air, by whatever means it may be produced341. For we observe winds to proceed from rivers and bays, and from the sea, even when it is tranquil; while others, which are named Altani, rise up from the earth; when they come back from the sea they are named Tropæi, but if they go straight on, Apogæi342.

(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains, their ridges, bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the hollow valleys, by their irregular forms, cleaving the air which rebounds from them (which is also the cause why voices are, in many cases, repeated several times in succession), give rise to winds.

(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of Dalmatia, with a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a light weight only be let down, and although the day be calm, a squall issues from it like a whirlwind. The name of the place is Senta. And also, in the province of Cyrenaica, there is a certain rock, said to be sacred to the south wind, which it is profane for a human hand to touch, as the south wind immediately rolls forwards clouds of sand343. There are also, in many houses, artificial cavities, formed in the walls344, which produce currents of air; none of these are without their appropriate cause.

CHAP. 45.—VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING WINDS.

But there is a great difference between a gale and a wind345. The former are uniform and appear to rush forth346; they are felt, not in certain spots only, but over whole countries, not forming breezes or squalls, but violent storms347. Whether they be produced by the constant revolution of the world and the opposite motion of the stars, or whether they both of them depend on the generative spirit of the nature of things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her womb, or whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of the wandering stars348, or the various projections of their rays, or whether they, each of them, proceed from their own stars, among which are those that are nearest to us, or whether they descend from those that are fixed in the heavens, it is manifest that they are all governed by a law of nature, which is not altogether unknown, although it be not completely ascertained.

(46.) More than twenty old Greek writers have published their observations upon this subject. And this is the more remarkable, seeing that there is so much discord in the world, and that it is divided into different kingdoms, that is into separate members, that there should have been so many who have paid attention to these subjects, which are so difficult to investigate. Especially when we consider the wars and the treachery which everywhere prevail; while pirates, the enemies of the human race, have possession of all the modes of communication, so that, at this time, a person may acquire more correct information about a country from the writings of those who have never been there, than from the inhabitants themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the blessed peace which we enjoy, under a prince who so greatly encourages the advancement of the arts, no new inquiries are set on foot, nor do we even make ourselves thoroughly masters of the discoveries of the ancients. Not that there were greater rewards held out, from the advantages being distributed to a greater number of persons, but that there were more individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters, with no other prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It is that the manners of men are degenerated, not that the advantages are diminished. All the seas, as many as there are, being laid open, and a hospitable reception being given us at every shore, an immense number of people undertake voyages; but it is for the sake of gain, not of science. Nor does their understanding, which is blinded and bent only on avarice, perceive that this very thing might be more safely done by means of science. Seeing, therefore, that there are so many thousands of persons on the seas, I will treat of the winds with more minuteness than perhaps might otherwise appear suitable to my undertaking.

CHAP. 46. (47.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WINDS349.

The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does Homer mention more350) corresponding to the four parts of the world; a very poor reason, as we now consider it. The next generation added eight others, but this was too refined and minute a division; the moderns have taken a middle course, and, out of this great number, have added four to the original set. There are, therefore, two in each of the four quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial rising of the sun351 proceeds Subsolanus352, and, from his brumal rising, Vulturnus353; the former is named by the Greeks Apeliotes354, the latter Eurus. From the south we have Auster, and from the brumal setting of the sun, Africus; these were named Notos and Libs. From the equinoctial setting proceeds Favonius355, and from the solstitial setting, Corus356; these were named Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven stars comes Septemtrio, between which and the solstitial rising we have Aquilo, named Aparctias and Boreas357. By a more minute subdivision we interpose four others, Thrascias, between Septemtrio and the solstitial setting; Cæcias, between Aquilo and the equinoctial rising; and Phœnices, between the brumal rising and the south. And also, at an equal distance from the south and the winter setting, between Libs and Notos, and compounded of the two, is Libonotos. Nor is this all. For some persons have added a wind, which they have named Meses, between Boreas and Cæcias, and one between Eurus and Notos, named Euronotus358.

There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries, which do not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in Attica, deviating a little from Argestes, and not known in the other parts of Greece. In other places it is a little higher on the card and is named Olympias; but all these have gone by the name of Argestes. In some places Cæcias is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in other cases. In the province of Narbonne the most noted wind is Circius; it is not inferior to any of the winds in violence, frequently driving the waves before it, to Ostia359, straight across the Ligurian sea. Yet this same wind is unknown in other parts, not even reaching Vienne, a city in the same province; for meeting with a high ridge of hills, just before it arrives at that district, it is checked, although it be the most violent of all the winds. Fabius also asserts, that the south winds never penetrate into Egypt. Hence this law of nature is obvious, that winds have their stated seasons and limits.

CHAP. 47.—THE PERIODS OF THE WINDS360.

The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the beginning of this season the west winds soften, as it were, the winter sky, the sun having now gained the 25th degree of Aquarius; this is on the sixth day before the Ides of February361. This agrees, for the most part, with all the remarks that I shall subsequently make, only anticipating the period by one day in the intercalary year, and again, preserving the same order in the succeeding lustrum362. After the eighth day before the Calends of March363, Favonius is called by some Chelidonias364, from the swallows making their appearance. The wind, which blows for the space of nine days, from the seventy-first day after the winter solstice365, is sometimes called Ornithias, from the arrival of the birds366. In the contrary direction to Favonius is the wind which we name Subsolanus, and this is connected with the rising of the Vergiliæ, in the 25th degree of Taurus, six days before the Ides of May367, which is the time when south winds prevail: these are opposite to Septemtrio. The dog-star rises in the hottest time of the summer, when the sun is entering the first degree of Leo368; this is fifteen days before the Calends of August. The north winds, which are called Prodromi369, precede its rising by about eight days. But in two days after its rising, the same north winds, which are named Etesiæ370, blow more constantly during this period; the vapour from the sun, being increased twofold by the heat of this star, is supposed to render these winds more mild; nor are there any which are more regular. After these the south winds become more frequent, until the appearance of Arcturus371, which rises eleven days before the autumnal equinox. At this time Corus sets in; Corus is an autumnal wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vulturnus. After this, and generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at the setting of the Vergiliæ, the winter commences, which usually happens on the third of the Ides of November372. This is the period of the winter north wind, which is very unlike the summer north wind, and which is in the opposite direction to Africus. For seven days before the winter solstice, and for the same length of time after it, the sea becomes calm, in order that the king-fishers may rear their young; from this circumstance they have obtained the name of the halcyon days373; the rest of the season is winterly374. Yet the severity of the storms does not entirely close up the sea. In former times, pirates were compelled, by the fear of death, to rush into death, and to brave the winter ocean; now we are driven to it by avarice375.

CHAP. 48.—NATURE OF THE WINDS376.

Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from the seven stars, and Corus, which is contiguous to them; these also restrain the others and dispel the clouds. The moist winds are Africus, and, still more, the Auster of Italy. It is said that, in Pontus, Cæcias attracts the clouds. The dry winds are Corus and Vulturnus, especially when they are about to cease blowing. The winds that bring snow are Aquilo and Septemtrio; Septemtrio brings hail, and so does Corus; Auster is sultry, Vulturnus and Zephyrus are warm. These winds are more dry than Subsolanus, and generally those which blow from the north and west are more dry than those which blow from the south and east. Aquilo is the most healthy of them all; Auster is unhealthy, and more so when dry; it is colder, perhaps because it is moist. Animals are supposed to have less appetite for food when this wind is blowing. The Etesiæ generally cease during the night, and spring up at the third hour of the day377. In Spain and in Asia these winds have an easterly direction, in Pontus a northerly, and in other places a southerly direction. They blow also after the winter solstice, when they are called Ornithiæ378, but they are more gentle and continue only for a few days. There are two winds which change their nature with their situation; in Africa Auster is attended with a clear sky, while Aquilo collects the clouds379. Almost all winds blow in their turn, so that when one ceases its opposite springs up. When winds which are contiguous succeed each other, they go from left to right, in the direction of the sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines their direction for the whole of the monthly period380. We are able to sail in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if we have the sails properly set; hence it frequently happens that, in the night, vessels going in different directions run against each other. Auster produces higher winds than Aquilo, because the former blows, as it were, from the bottom of the sea, while the latter blows on the surface; it is therefore after south winds that the most mischievous earthquakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the night, Aquilo during the day; winds from the east continue longer than from the west. The north winds generally cease blowing on the odd days, and we observe the prevalence of the odd numbers in many other parts of nature; the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers381. The sun sometimes increases and sometimes restrains winds; when rising and setting it increases them; while, when on the meridian, it restrains them during the summer. They are, therefore, generally lulled during the middle of the day and of the night, because they are abated either by excessive cold or heat; winds are also lulled by showers. We generally expect them to come from that quarter where the clouds open and allow the clear sky to be seen. Eudoxus382 supposes that the same succession of changes occurs in them after a period of four years, if we observe their minute revolutions; and this applies not only to winds, but to whatever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his lustrum at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year. So far concerning winds in general.

CHAP. 49. (48.)—ECNEPHIAS AND TYPHON.

And now respecting the sudden gusts383, which arising from the exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and falling down again, being in the mean time covered by a thin film of clouds, exist in a variety of forms. By their wandering about, and rushing down like torrents, in the opinion of some persons, they produce thunder and lightning384. But if they be urged on with greater force and violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they produce a squall385, which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias386. But, if these are compressed, and rolled up more closely together, and then break without any discharge of fire, i. e. without thunder, they produce a squall, which is named Typhon387, or an Ecnephias in a state of agitation. It carries along a portion of the cloud which it has broken off, rolling it and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This is very much dreaded by sailors, as it not only breaks their sail-yards, but the vessels themselves, bending them about in various ways. This may be in a slight degree counteracted by sprinkling it with vinegar, when it comes near us, this substance being of a very cold nature388. This wind, when it rebounds after the stroke, absorbs and carries up whatever it may have seized on.

CHAP. 50.—TORNADOES; BLASTING WINDS; WHIRLWINDS389, AND OTHER WONDERFUL KINDS OF TEMPESTS.

But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more depressed, but less capacious than what produces a squall, and is accompanied by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and throws down everything which is near it. The same, when it is more burning and rages with greater heat, is called a blasting wind390, scorching and, at the same time, throwing down everything with which it comes in contact. (49.) Typhon never comes from the north, nor have we Ecnephias when it snows, or when there is snow on the ground. If it breaks the clouds, and, at the same time, catches fire or burns, but not until it has left the cloud, it forms a thunder-bolt. It differs from Prester as flame does from fire; the former is diffused in a gust, the latter is condensed with a violent impulse391. The whirlwind, when it rebounds, differs from the tornado in the same manner as a loud noise does from a dash.

The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the clouds being more properly rent asunder than broken into pieces. A black cloud is formed, resembling a great animal, an appearance much dreaded by sailors. It is also called a pillar, when the moisture is so condensed and rigid as to be able to support itself. It is a cloud of the same kind, which, when drawn into a tube, sucks up the water392.

CHAP. 51. (50.)—OF THUNDER393; IN WHAT COUNTRIES IT DOES NOT FALL, AND FOR WHAT REASON.

Thunder is rare both in winter and in summer394, but from different causes; the air, which is condensed in the winter, is made still more dense by a thicker covering of clouds, while the exhalations from the earth, being all of them rigid and frozen, extinguish whatever fiery vapour it may receive. It is this cause which exempts Scythia and the cold districts round it from thunder. On the other hand, the excessive heat exempts Egypt; the warm and dry vapours of the earth being very seldom condensed, and that only into light clouds. But, in the spring and autumn, thunder is more frequent, the causes which produce summer and winter being, in each season, less efficient. From this cause thunder is more frequent in Italy, the air being more easily set in motion, in consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so that it may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in those parts of Italy which recede from the north and lie towards the south, as in the district round our city, and in Campania, it lightens equally both in winter and in summer, which is not the case in other situations.

CHAP. 52. (51.)—OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF LIGHTNING395 AND THEIR WONDERFUL EFFECTS.

We have accounts of many different kinds of thunder-storms. Those which are dry do not burn objects, but dissipate them; while those which are moist do not burn, but blacken them. There is a third kind, which is called bright lightning396, of a very wonderful nature, by which casks are emptied, without the vessels themselves being injured, or there being any other trace left of their operation397. Gold, copper, and silver are melted, while the bags which contain them are not in the least burned, nor even the wax seal much defaced. Marcia, a lady of high rank at Rome, was struck while pregnant; the fœtus was destroyed, while she herself survived without suffering any injury398. Among the prognostics which took place at the time of Catiline’s conspiracy, M. Herennius, a magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by lightning when the sky was without clouds399.

CHAP. 53. (52.)—THE ETRURIAN400 AND THE ROMAN OBSERVATIONS ON THESE POINTS.

The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Gods who discharge thunder-storms, that there are eleven different kinds of them, and that three of them are darted out by Jupiter. Of these the Romans retained only two, ascribing the diurnal kind to Jupiter, and the nocturnal to Summanus401; this latter kind being more rare, in consequence of the heavens being colder, as was mentioned above. The Etrurians also suppose, that those which are named Infernal burst out of the ground; they are produced in the winter and are particularly fierce and direful, as all things are which proceed from the earth, and are not generated by or proceeding from the stars, but from a cause which is near at hand, and of a more disorderly nature. As a proof of this it is said, that all those which proceed from the higher regions strike obliquely, while those which are termed terrestrial strike in a direct line. And because these fall from matter which is nearer to us, they are supposed to proceed from the earth, since they leave no traces of a rebound; this being the effect of a stroke coming not from below, but from an opposite quarter. Those who have searched into the subject more minutely suppose, that these come from the planet Saturn, as those that are of a burning nature do from Mars. In this way it was that Volsinium, the most opulent town of the Tuscans, was entirely consumed by lightning402. The first of these strokes that a man receives, after he has come into possession of any property, is termed Familiar403, and is supposed to prognosticate the events of the whole of his life. But it is not generally supposed that they predict events of a private nature for a longer space than ten years, unless they happen at the time of a first marriage or a birth-day; nor that public predictions extend beyond thirty years404, unless with respect to the founding of colonies405.

CHAP. 54. (53.)—OF CONJURING UP THUNDER.

It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred rites and imprecations, thunder-storms may be compelled or invoked406. There is an old report in Etruria, that thunder was invoked when the city of Volsinium had its territory laid waste by a monster named Volta407. Thunder was also invoked by King Porsenna. And L. Piso408, a very respectable author, states in the first book of his Annals, that this had been frequently done before his time by Numa, and that Tullus Hostilius, imitating him, but not having properly performed the ceremonies, was struck with the lightning409. We have also groves, and altars, and sacred places, and, among the titles of Jupiter, as Stator, Tonans, and Feretrius, we have a Jupiter Elicius410. The opinions entertained on this point are very various, and depend much on the dispositions of different individuals. To believe that we can command nature is the mark of a bold mind, nor is it less the mark of a feeble one to reject her kindness411. Our knowledge has been so far useful to us in the interpretation of thunder, that it enables us to predict what is to happen on a certain day, and we learn either that our fortune is to be entirely changed, or it discloses events which are concealed from us; as is proved by an infinite number of examples, public and private. Wherefore let these things remain, according to the order of nature, to some persons certain, to others doubtful, by some approved, by others condemned. I must not, however, omit the other circumstances connected with them which deserve to be related.

CHAP. 55. (54.)—GENERAL LAWS OF LIGHTNING.

It is certain that the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard, although they both take place at the same time. Nor is this wonderful, since light has a greater velocity than sound. Nature so regulates it, that the stroke and the sound coincide412; the sound is, however, produced by the discharge of the thunder, not by its stroke. But the air is impelled quicker than the lightning413, on which account it is that everything is shaken and blown up before it is struck, and that a person is never injured when he has seen the lightning and heard the thunder. Thunder on the left hand is supposed to be lucky, because the east is on the left side of the heavens414. We do not regard so much the mode in which it comes to us, as that in which it leaves us, whether the fire rebounds after the stroke, or whether the current of air returns when the operation is concluded and the fire is consumed. In relation to this object the Etrurians have divided the heavens into sixteen parts415. The first great division is from north to east; the second to the south; the third to the west, and the fourth occupies what remains from west to north. Each of these has been subdivided into four parts, of which the eight on the east have been called the left, and those on the west the right divisions. Those which extend from the west to the north have been considered the most unpropitious. It becomes therefore very important to ascertain from what quarter the thunder proceeds, and in what direction it falls. It is considered a very favourable omen when it returns into the eastern divisions. But it prognosticates the greatest felicity when the thunder proceeds from the first-mentioned part of the heavens and falls back into it; it was an omen of this kind which, as we have heard, was given to Sylla, the Dictator. The remaining quarters of the heavens are less propitious, and also less to be dreaded. There are some kinds of thunder which it is not thought right to speak of, or even to listen to, unless when they have been disclosed to the master of a family or to a parent. But the futility of this observation was detected when the temple of Juno was struck at Rome, during the consulship of Scaurus, he who was afterwards the Prince of the Senate416.

It lightens without thunder more frequently in the night than in the day417. Man is the only animal that is not always killed by it, all other animals being killed instantly, nature having granted to him this mark of distinction, while so many other animals excel him in strength. All animals fall down on the opposite side to that which has been struck; man, unless he be thrown down on the parts that are struck, does not expire. Those who are struck directly from above sink down immediately. When a man is struck while he is awake, he is found with his eyes closed; when asleep, with them open. It is not considered proper that a man killed in this way should be burnt on the funeral pile; our religion enjoins us to bury the body in the earth418. No animal is consumed by lightning unless after having been previously killed. The parts of the animal that have been wounded by lightning are colder than the rest of the body.

CHAP. 56. (55.)—OBJECTS WHICH ARE NEVER STRUCK.

Among the productions of the earth, thunder never strikes the laurel419, nor does it descend more than five feet into the earth. Those, therefore, who are timid consider the deepest caves as the most safe; or tents made of the skins of the animal called the sea-calf, since this is the only marine animal which is never struck420; as is the case, among birds, with the eagle; on this account it is represented as the bearer of this weapon421. In Italy, between Terracina and the temple of Feronia, the people have left off building towers in time of war, every one of them having been destroyed by thunderbolts.

CHAP. 57. (56.)—SHOWERS OF MILK, BLOOD, FLESH, IRON, WOOL, AND BAKED TILES422.

Besides these, we learn from certain monuments, that from the lower part of the atmosphere423 it rained milk and blood, in the consulship of M’ Acilius and C. Porcius, and frequently at other times424. This was the case with respect to flesh, in the consulship of P. Volumnius and Servius Sulpicius, and it is said, that what was not devoured by the birds did not become putrid. It also rained iron among the Lucanians, the year before Crassus was slain by the Parthians, as well as all the Lucanian soldiers, of whom there was a great number in this army. The substance which fell had very much the appearance of sponge425; the augurs warned the people against wounds that might come from above. In the consulship of L. Paulus and C. Marcellus it rained wool, round the castle of Carissanum, near which place, a year after, T. Annius Milo was killed. It is recorded, among the transactions of that year, that when he was pleading his own cause, there was a shower of baked tiles.

CHAP. 58. (57.)—RATTLING OF ARMS AND THE SOUND OF TRUMPETS HEARD IN THE SKY.

We have heard, that during the war with the Cimbri, the rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets were heard through the sky, and that the same thing has frequently happened before and since426. Also, that in the third consulship of Marius, armies were seen in the heavens by the Amerini and the Tudertes, encountering each other, as if from the east and west, and that those from the east were repelled427. It is not at all wonderful for the heavens themselves to be in flames428, and it has been more frequently observed when the clouds have taken up a great deal of fire.

CHAP. 59. (58.)—OF STONES THAT HAVE FALLEN FROM THE CLOUDS429. THE OPINION OF ANAXAGORAS RESPECTING THEM.

The Greeks boast that Anaxagoras430, the Clazomenian, in the second year of the 78th Olympiad, from his knowledge of what relates to the heavens, had predicted, that at a certain time, a stone would fall from the sun431. And the thing accordingly happened, in the daytime, in a part of Thrace, at the river Ægos. The stone is now to be seen, a waggon-load in size and of a burnt appearance; there was also a comet shining in the night at that time432. But to believe that this had been predicted would be to admit that the divining powers of Anaxagoras were still more wonderful, and that our knowledge of the nature of things, and indeed every thing else, would be thrown into confusion, were we to suppose either that the sun is itself composed of stone, or that there was even a stone in it; yet there can be no doubt that stones have frequently fallen from the atmosphere. There is a stone, a small one indeed, at this time, in the Gymnasium of Abydos, which on this account is held in veneration, and which the same Anaxagoras predicted would fall in the middle of the earth. There is another at Cassandria, formerly called Potidæa433, which from this circumstance was built in that place. I have myself seen one in the country of the Vocontii434, which had been brought from the fields only a short time before.

CHAP. 60. (59.)—THE RAINBOW.

What we name Rainbows frequently occur, and are not considered either wonderful or ominous; for they do not predict, with certainty, either rain or fair weather. It is obvious, that the rays of the sun, being projected upon a hollow cloud, the light is thrown back to the sun and is refracted435, and that the variety of colours is produced by a mixture of clouds, air, and fire436. The rainbow is certainly never produced except in the part opposite to the sun, nor even in any other form except that of a semicircle. Nor are they ever formed at night, although Aristotle asserts that they are sometimes seen at that time; he acknowledges, however, that it can only be on the 14th day of the moon437. They are seen in the winter the most frequently, when the days are shortening, after the autumnal equinox438. They are not seen when the days increase again, after the vernal equinox, nor on the longest days, about the summer solstice, but frequently at the winter solstice, when the days are the shortest. When the sun is low they are high, and when the sun is high they are low; they are smaller when in the east or west, but are spread out wider; in the south they are small, but of a greater span. In the summer they are not seen at noon, but after the autumnal equinox at any hour: there are never more than two seen at once.

CHAP. 61.—THE NATURE OF HAIL, SNOW, HOAR, MIST, DEW; THE FORMS OF CLOUDS.

I do not find that there is any doubt entertained respecting the following points. (60.) Hail is produced by frozen rain, and snow by the same fluid less firmly concreted, and hoar by frozen dew439. During the winter snow falls, but not hail; hail itself falls more frequently during the day than the night, and is more quickly melted than snow. There are no mists either in the summer or during the greatest cold of winter. There is neither dew nor hoar formed during great heat or winds, nor unless the night be serene. Fluids are diminished in bulk by being frozen, and, when the ice is melted, we do not obtain the same quantity of fluid as at first440.

(61.) The clouds are varied in their colour and figure according as the fire which they contain is in excess or is absorbed by them.

CHAP. 62. (62.)—THE PECULIARITIES OF THE WEATHER IN DIFFERENT PLACES.

There are, moreover, certain peculiarities in certain places. In Africa dew falls during the night in summer. In Italy, at Locri, and at the Lake Velinum, there is never a day in which a rainbow is not seen441. At Rhodes and at Syracuse the sky is never so covered with clouds, but that the sun is visible at one time or another; these things, however, will be better detailed in their proper place. So far respecting the air.

CHAP. 63. (63.)—NATURE OF THE EARTH.

Next comes the earth, on which alone of all parts of nature we have bestowed the name that implies maternal veneration. It is appropriated to man as the heavens are to God. She receives us at our birth, nourishes us when born, and ever afterwards supports us; lastly, embracing us in her bosom when we are rejected by the rest of nature, she then covers us with especial tenderness; rendered sacred to us, inasmuch as she renders us sacred, bearing our monuments and titles, continuing our names, and extending our memory, in opposition to the shortness of life. In our anger we imprecate her on those who are now no more442, as if we were ignorant that she is the only being who can never be angry with man. The water passes into showers, is concreted into hail, swells into rivers, is precipitated in torrents; the air is condensed into clouds, rages in squalls; but the earth, kind, mild, and indulgent as she is, and always ministering to the wants of mortals, how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously! What odours and flowers, nutritive juices, forms and colours! With what good faith does she render back all that has been entrusted to her! It is the vital spirit which must bear the blame of producing noxious animals; for the earth is constrained to receive the seeds of them, and to support them when they are produced. The fault lies in the evil nature which generates them. The earth will no longer harbour a serpent after it has attacked any one443, and thus she even demands punishment in the name of those who are indifferent about it themselves444. She pours forth a profusion of medicinal plants, and is always producing something for the use of man. We may even suppose, that it is out of compassion to us that she has ordained certain substances to be poisonous, in order that when we are weary of life, hunger, a mode of death the most foreign to the kind disposition of the earth445, might not consume us by a slow decay, that precipices might not lacerate our mangled bodies, that the unseemly punishment of the halter may not torture us, by stopping the breath of one who seeks his own destruction, or that we may not seek our death in the ocean, and become food for our graves, or that our bodies may not be gashed by steel. On this account it is that nature has produced a substance which is very easily taken, and by which life is extinguished, the body remaining undefiled and retaining all its blood, and only causing a degree of thirst. And when it is destroyed by this means, neither bird nor beast will touch the body, but he who has perished by his own hands is reserved for the earth.

But it must be acknowledged, that everything which the earth has produced, as a remedy for our evils, we have converted into the poison of our lives. For do we not use iron, which we cannot do without, for this purpose? But although this cause of mischief has been produced, we ought not to complain; we ought not to be ungrateful to this one part of nature446. How many luxuries and how many insults does she not bear for us! She is cast into the sea, and, in order that we may introduce seas into her bosom, she is washed away by the waves. She is continually tortured for her iron, her timber, stone, fire, corn, and is even much more subservient to our luxuries than to our mere support. What indeed she endures on her surface might be tolerated, but we penetrate also into her bowels, digging out the veins of gold and silver, and the ores of copper and lead; we also search for gems and certain small pebbles, driving our trenches to a great depth. We tear out her entrails in order to extract the gems with which we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little joint may be ornamented! If the infernal regions really existed, certainly these burrows of avarice and luxury would have penetrated into them. And truly we wonder that this same earth should have produced anything noxious! But, I suppose, the savage beasts protect her and keep off our sacrilegious hands447. For do we not dig among serpents and handle poisonous plants along with those veins of gold? But the Goddess shows herself more propitious to us, inasmuch as all this wealth ends in crimes, slaughter, and war, and that, while we drench her with our blood, we cover her with unburied bones; and being covered with these and her anger being thus appeased, she conceals the crimes of mortals448. I consider the ignorance of her nature as one of the evil effects of an ungrateful mind.

CHAP. 64. (64.)—OF THE FORM OF THE EARTH.

Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure449. We always speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it to be a globe bounded by the poles. It has not indeed the form of an absolute sphere, from the number of lofty mountains and flat plains; but if the termination of the lines be bounded by a curve450, this would compose a perfect sphere. And this we learn from arguments drawn from the nature of things, although not from the same considerations which we made use of with respect to the heavens. For in these the hollow convexity everywhere bends on itself, and leans upon the earth as its centre. Whereas the earth rises up solid and dense, like something that swells up and is protruded outwards. The heavens bend towards the centre, while the earth goes from the centre, the continual rolling of the heavens about it forcing its immense globe into the form of a sphere451.

CHAP. 65. (65.)—WHETHER THERE BE ANTIPODES?

On this point there is a great contest between the learned and the vulgar. We maintain, that there are men dispersed over every part of the earth, that they stand with their feet turned towards each other, that the vault of the heavens appears alike to all of them, and that they, all of them, appear to tread equally on the middle of the earth. If any one should ask, why those situated opposite to us do not fall, we directly ask in return, whether those on the opposite side do not wonder that we do not fall. But I may make a remark, that will appear plausible even to the most unlearned, that if the earth were of the figure of an unequal globe, like the seed of a pine452, still it may be inhabited in every part.

But of how little moment is this, when we have another miracle rising up to our notice! The earth itself is pendent and does not fall with us; it is doubtful whether this be from the force of the spirit which is contained in the universe453, or whether it would fall, did not nature resist, by allowing of no place where it might fall. For as the seat of fire is nowhere but in fire, nor of water except in water, nor of air except in air, so there is no situation for the earth except in itself, everything else repelling it. It is indeed wonderful that it should form a globe, when there is so much flat surface of the sea and of the plains. And this was the opinion of Dicæarchus, a peculiarly learned man, who measured the heights of mountains, under the direction of the kings, and estimated Pelion, which was the highest, at 1250 paces perpendicular, and considered this as not affecting the round figure of the globe. But this appears to me to be doubtful, as I well know that the summits of some of the Alps rise up by a long space of not less than 50,000 paces454. But what the vulgar most strenuously contend against is, to be compelled to believe that the water is forced into a rounded figure455; yet there is nothing more obvious to the sight among the phænomena of nature. For we see everywhere, that drops, when they hang down, assume the form of small globes, and when they are covered with dust, or have the down of leaves spread over them, they are observed to be completely round; and when a cup is filled, the liquid swells up in the middle. But on account of the subtile nature of the fluid and its inherent softness, the fact is more easily ascertained by our reason than by our sight. And it is even more wonderful, that if a very little fluid only be added to a cup when it is full, the superfluous quantity runs over, whereas the contrary happens if we add a solid body, even as much as would weigh 20 denarii. The reason of this is, that what is dropt in raises up the fluid at the top, while what is poured on it slides off from the projecting surface. It is from the same cause456 that the land is not visible from the body of a ship when it may be seen from the mast; and that when a vessel is receding, if any bright object be fixed to the mast, it seems gradually to descend and finally to become invisible. And the ocean, which we admit to be without limits, if it had any other figure, could it cohere and exist without falling, there being no external margin to contain it? And the same wonder still recurs, how is it that the extreme parts of the sea, although it be in the form of a globe, do not fall down? In opposition to which doctrine, the Greeks, to their great joy and glory, were the first to teach us, by their subtile geometry, that this could not happen, even if the seas were flat, and of the figure which they appear to be. For since water always runs from a higher to a lower level, and this is admitted to be essential to it, no one ever doubted that the water would accumulate on any shore, as much as its slope would allow it. It is also certain, that the lower anything is, so much the nearer is it to the centre, and that all the lines which are drawn from this point to the water which is the nearest to it, are shorter than those which reach from the beginning of the sea to its extreme parts457. Hence it follows, that all the water, from every part, tends towards the centre, and, because it has this tendency, does not fall.

CHAP. 66.—HOW THE WATER IS CONNECTED WITH THE EARTH. OF THE NAVIGATION OF THE SEA AND THE RIVERS.

We must believe, that the great artist, Nature, has so arranged it, that as the arid and dry earth cannot subsist by itself and without moisture, nor, on the other hand, can the water subsist unless it be supported by the earth, they are connected by a mutual union. The earth opens her harbours, while the water pervades the whole earth, within, without, and above; its veins running in all directions, like connecting links, and bursting out on even the highest ridges; where, forced up by the air, and pressed out by the weight of the earth, it shoots forth as from a pipe, and is so far from being in danger of falling, that it bounds up to the highest and most lofty places. Hence the reason is obvious, why the seas are not increased by the daily accession of so many rivers458.

(66.) The earth has, therefore, the whole of its globe girt, on every side, by the sea flowing round it. And this is not a point to be investigated by arguments, but what has been ascertained by experience.

CHAP. 67. (67.)—WHETHER THE OCEAN SURROUNDS THE EARTH.

The whole of the western ocean is now navigated, from Gades and the Pillars of Hercules, round Spain and Gaul. The greater part of the northern ocean has also been navigated, under the auspices of the Emperor Augustus, his fleet having been carried round Germany to the promontory of the Cimbri459; from which spot they descried an immense sea, or became acquainted with it by report, which extends to the country of the Scythians, and the districts that are chilled by excessive moisture460. On this account it is not at all probable, that the ocean should be deficient in a region where moisture so much abounds. In like manner, towards the east, from the Indian sea, all that part which lies in the same latitude461, and which bends round towards the Caspian462, has been explored by the Macedonian arms, in the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus, who wished it to be named after themselves, the Seleucian or Antiochian Sea. About the Caspian, too, many parts of the shores of the ocean have been explored, so that nearly the whole of the north has been sailed over in one direction or another. Nor can our argument be much affected by the point that has been so much discussed, respecting the Palus Mæotis, whether it be a bay of the same ocean463, as is, I understand, the opinion of some persons, or whether it be the overflowing of a narrow channel connected with a different ocean464. On the other side of Gades, proceeding from the same western point, a great part of the southern ocean, along Mauritania, has now been navigated. Indeed the greater part of this region, as well as of the east, as far as the Arabian Gulf, was surveyed in consequence of Alexander’s victories. When Caius Cæsar, the son of Augustus465, had the conduct of affairs in that country, it is said that they found the remains of Spanish vessels which had been wrecked there. While the power of Carthage was at its height, Hanno published an account of a voyage which he made from Gades to the extremity of Arabia466; Himilco was also sent, about the same time, to explore the remote parts of Europe. Besides, we learn from Corn. Nepos, that one Eudoxus, a contemporary of his467, when he was flying from king Lathyrus, set out from the Arabian Gulf, and was carried as far as Gades468. And long before him, Cælius Antipater469 informs us, that he had seen a person who had sailed from Spain to Æthiopia for the purposes of trade. The same Cornelius Nepos, when speaking of the northern circumnavigation, tells us that Q. Metellus Celer, the colleague of L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a proconsul in Gaul470, had a present made to him by the king of the Suevi, of certain Indians, who sailing from India for the purpose of commerce, had been driven by tempests into Germany471. Thus it appears, that the seas which flow completely round the globe, and divide it, as it were, into two parts472, exclude us from one part of it, as there is no way open to it on either side. And as the contemplation of these things is adapted to detect the vanity of mortals, it seems incumbent on me to display, and lay open to our eyes, the whole of it, whatever it be, in which there is nothing which can satisfy the desires of certain individuals.

CHAP. 68. (68.)—WHAT PART OF THE EARTH IS INHABITED.

In the first place, then, it appears, that this should be estimated at half the globe473, as if no portion of this half was encroached upon by the ocean. But surrounding as it does the whole of the land, pouring out and receiving all the other waters, furnishing whatever goes to the clouds, and feeding the stars themselves, so numerous and of such great size as they are, what a great space must we not suppose it to occupy! This vast mass must fill up and occupy an infinite extent. To this we must add that portion of the remainder which the heavens474 take from us. For the globe is divided into five parts475, termed zones, and all that portion is subject to severe cold and perpetual frost which is under the two extremities, about each of the poles, the nearer of which is called the north, and the opposite the south, pole. In all these regions there is perpetual darkness, and, in consequence of the aspect of the milder stars being turned from them, the light is malignant, and only like the whiteness which is produced by hoar frost. The middle of the earth, over which is the orbit of the sun, is parched and burned by the flame, and is consumed by being so near the heat. There are only two of the zones which are temperate, those which lie between the torrid and the frigid zones, and these are separated from each other, in consequence of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies. It appears, therefore, that the heavens take from us three parts of the earth; how much the ocean steals is uncertain.

And with respect to the part which is left us, I do not know whether that is not even in greater danger. This same ocean, insinuating itself, as I have described it, into a number of bays, approaches with its roaring476 so near to the inland seas, that the Arabian Gulf is no more than 115 miles from the Egyptian Sea477, and the Caspian only 375 miles from the Euxine. It also insinuates itself into the numerous seas by which it separates Africa, Europe, and Asia; hence how much space must it occupy? We must also take into account the extent of all the rivers and the marshes, and we must add the lakes and the pools. There are also the mountains, raised up to the heavens, with their precipitous fronts; we must also subtract the forests and the craggy valleys, the wildernesses, and the places, which, from various causes, are desert. The vast quantity which remains of the earth478, or rather, as many persons have considered it, this speck of a world479 (for the earth is no more in regard to the universe), this is the object, the seat of our glory—here we bear our honours, here we exercise our power, here we covet wealth, here we mortals create our disturbances, here we continually carry on our wars, aye, civil wars, even, and unpeople the earth by mutual slaughter. And not to dwell on public feuds, entered into by nations against each other, here it is that we drive away our neighbours, and enclose the land thus seized upon within our own fence480; and yet the man who has most extended his boundary, and has expelled the inhabitants for ever so great a distance, after all, what mighty portion of the earth is he master of? And even when his avarice has been the most completely satisfied, what part of it can he take with him into the grave?

CHAP. 69. (69.)—THAT THE EARTH IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WORLD.

It is evident from undoubted arguments, that the earth is in the middle of the universe481, but it is the most clearly proved by the equality of the days and the nights at the equinox482. It is demonstrated by the quadrant483, which affords the most decisive confirmation of the fact, that unless the earth was in the middle, the days and nights could not be equal; for, at the time of the equinox, the rising and setting of the sun are seen on the same line, and the rising of the sun, at the summer solstice, is on the same line with its setting at the winter solstice; but this could not happen if the earth was not situated in the centre.

CHAP. 70. (70.)—OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ZONES484.

The three circles485, which are connected with the above-mentioned zones, distinguish the inequalities of the seasons; these are, the solstitial circle, which proceeds from the part of the Zodiac the highest to us and approaching the nearest to the district of the north; on the other side, the brumal, which is towards the south pole; and the equinoctial, which traverses the middle of the Zodiac.

CHAP. 71.—OF THE INEQUALITY OF CLIMATES.

The cause of the other things which are worthy of our admiration depends on the figure of the earth itself, which, together with all its waters, is proved, by the same arguments, to be a globe. This certainly is the cause why the stars of the northern portion of the heavens never set to us, and why, on the other hand, those in the south never rise, and again, why the latter can never be seen by the former, the globe of the earth rising up and concealing them. The Northern Wain is never seen in Troglodytice486, nor in Egypt, which borders on it487; nor can we, in Italy, see the star Canopus488, or Berenice’s Hair489; nor what, under the Emperor Augustus, was named Cæsar’s Throne, although they are, there490, very brilliant stars. The curved form of the earth is so obvious, rising up like a ridge, that Canopus appears to a spectator at Alexandria to rise above the horizon almost the quarter of a sign; the same star at Rhodes appears, as it were, to graze along the earth, while in Pontus it is not seen at all; where the Northern Wain appears considerably elevated. This same constellation cannot be seen at Rhodes, and still less at Alexandria. In Arabia, in the month of November, it is concealed during the first watch of the night, but may be seen during the second491; in Meroë it is seen, for a short time, in the evening, at the solstice, and it is visible at day-break, for a few days before the rising of Arcturus492. These facts have been principally ascertained by the expeditions of navigators; the sea appearing more elevated or depressed in certain parts493; the stars suddenly coming into view, and, as it were, emerging from the water, after having been concealed by the bulging out of the globe494. But the heavens do not, as some suppose, rise higher at one pole, otherwise495 its stars would be seen from all parts of the world; they indeed are supposed to be higher by those who are nearest to them, but the stars are sunk below the horizon to those who are more remote. As this pole appears to be elevated to those who are beneath it; so, when we have passed along the convexity of the earth, those stars rise up, which appear elevated to the inhabitants of those other districts; all this, however, could not happen unless the earth had the shape of a globe.

CHAP. 72.—IN WHAT PLACES ECLIPSES ARE INVISIBLE, AND WHY THIS IS THE CASE.

Hence it is that the inhabitants of the east do not see those eclipses of the sun or of the moon which occur in the evening, nor the inhabitants of the west those in the morning, while such as take place at noon are more frequently visible496. We are told, that at the time of the famous victory of Alexander the Great, at Arbela497, the moon was eclipsed at the second hour of the night, while, in Sicily, the moon was rising at the same hour. The eclipse of the sun which occurred the day before the calends of May, in the consulship of Vipstanus and Fonteius498, not many years ago, was seen in Campania between the seventh and eighth hour of the day; the general Corbulo informs us, that it was seen in Armenia, between the eleventh and twelfth hour499; thus the curve of the globe both reveals and conceals different objects from the inhabitants of its different parts. If the earth had been flat, everything would have been seen at the same time, from every part of it, and the nights would not have been unequal; while the equal intervals of twelve hours, which are now observed only in the middle of the earth, would in that case have been the same everywhere.

CHAP. 73. (71.)—WHAT REGULATES THE DAYLIGHT ON THE EARTH.

Hence it is that there is not any one night and day the same, in all parts of the earth, at the same time; the intervention of the globe producing night, and its turning round producing day500. This is known by various observations. In Africa and in Spain it is made evident by the Towers of Hannibal501, and in Asia by the beacons, which, in consequence of their dread of pirates, the people erected for their protection; for it has been frequently observed, that the signals, which were lighted at the sixth hour of the day, were seen at the third hour of the night by those who were the most remote502. Philonides, a courier of the above-mentioned Alexander, went from Sicyon to Elis, a distance of 1200 stadia, in nine hours, while he seldom returned until the third hour of the night, although the road was down-hill503. The reason is, that, in going, he followed the course of the sun, while on his return, in the opposite direction, he met the sun and left it behind him. For the same reason it is, that those who sail to the west, even on the shortest day, compensate for the difficulty of sailing in the night and go farther504, because they sail in the same direction with the sun.

CHAP. 74. (72.)—REMARKS ON DIALS, AS CONNECTED WITH THIS SUBJECT.

The same dial-plates505 cannot be used in all places, the shadow of the sun being sensibly different at distances of 300, or at most of 500 stadia506. Hence the shadow of the dial-pin, which is termed the gnomon, at noon and at the summer solstice, in Egypt, is a little more than half the length of the gnomon itself. At the city of Rome it is only 1⁄9 less than the gnomon, at Ancona not more than 1⁄35 less, while in the part of Italy which is called Venetia, at the same hour, the shadow is equal to the length of the gnomon507.

CHAP. 75. (73.)—WHEN AND WHERE THERE ARE NO SHADOWS.

It is likewise said, that in the town of Syene, which is 5000 stadia south of Alexandria508, there is no shadow at noon, on the day of the solstice; and that a well, which was sunk for the purpose of the experiment, is illuminated by the sun in every part. Hence it appears that the sun, in this place, is vertical, and Onesicritus informs us that this is the case, about the same time, in India, at the river Hypasis509. It is well known, that at Berenice, a city of the Troglodytæ, and 4820 stadia beyond that city, in the same country, at the town of Ptolemais, which was built on the Red Sea, when the elephant was first hunted, this same thing takes place for forty-five days before the solstice and for an equal length of time after it, and that during these ninety days the shadows are turned towards the south510. Again, at Meroë, an island in the Nile and the metropolis of the Æthiopians, which is 5000 stadia511 from Syene, there are no shadows at two periods of the year, viz. when the sun is in the 18th degree of Taurus and in the 14th of Leo512. The Oretes, a people of India, have a mountain named Maleus513, near which the shadows in summer fall towards the south and in winter towards the north. The seven stars of the Great Bear are visible there for fifteen nights only. In India also, in the celebrated sea-port Patale514, the sun rises to the right hand and the shadows fall towards the south. While Alexander was staying there it was observed, that the seven northern stars were seen only during the early part of the night515. Onesicritus, one of his generals, informs us in his work, that in those places in India where there are no shadows, the seven stars are not visible516; these places, he says, are called “Ascia517,” and the people there do not reckon the time by hours518.

CHAP. 76. (74.)—-WHERE THIS TAKES PLACE TWICE IN THE YEAR AND WHERE THE SHADOWS FALL IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.

Eratosthenes informs us, that in the whole of Troglodytice, for twice forty-five days in the year, the shadows fall in the contrary direction519.

CHAP. 77. (75.)—WHERE THE DAYS ARE THE LONGEST AND WHERE THE SHORTEST.

Hence it follows, that in consequence of the daylight increasing in various degrees, in Meroë the longest day consists of twelve æquinoctial hours and eight parts of an hour520, at Alexandria of fourteen hours, in Italy of fifteen, in Britain of seventeen; where the degree of light, which exists in the night, very clearly proves, what the reason of the thing also obliges us to believe, that, during the solstitial period, as the sun approaches to the pole of the world, and his orbit is contracted, the parts of the earth that lie below him have a day of six months long, and a night of equal length when he is removed to the south pole. Pytheas, of Marseilles521, informs us, that this is the case in the island of Thule522, which is six days’ sail from the north of Britain. Some persons also affirm that this is the case in Mona, which is about 200 miles from Camelodunum523, a town of Britain.

CHAP. 78. (76.)—OF THE FIRST DIAL.

Anaximenes the Milesian, the disciple of Anaximander, of whom I have spoken above524, discovered the theory of shadows and what is called the art of dialling, and he was the first who exhibited at Lacedæmon the dial which they call sciothericon525.

CHAP. 79. (77.)—OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE DAYS ARE COMPUTED.

The days have been computed by different people in different ways. The Babylonians reckoned from one sunrise to the next; the Athenians from one sunset to the next; the Umbrians from noon to noon; the multitude, universally, from light to darkness; the Roman priests and those who presided over the civil day, also the Egyptians and Hipparchus, from midnight to midnight526. It appears that the interval from one sunrise to the next is less near the solstices than near the equinoxes, because the position of the zodiac is more oblique about its middle part, and more straight near the solstice527.

CHAP. 80. (78.)—OF THE DIFFERENCE OF NATIONS AS DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE WORLD.

To these circumstances we must add those that are connected with certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt, that the Æthiopians are scorched by their vicinity to the sun’s heat, and they are born, like persons who have been burned, with the beard and hair frizzled528; while, in the opposite and frozen parts of the earth, there are nations with white skins and long light hair. The latter are savage from the inclemency of the climate, while the former are dull from its variableness529. We learn, from the form of the legs, that in the one, the fluids, like vapour, are forced into the upper parts of the body, while in the other, being a gross humour, it is drawn downwards into the lower parts530. In the cold regions savage beasts are produced, and in the others, various forms of animals, and many kinds of birds531. In both situations the body grows tall, in the one case by the force of fire, and in the other by the nutritive moisture.

In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of the two, a tract fruitful in all things, the habits of the body holding a mean between the two, with a proper tempering of colours; the manners of the people are gentle, the intellect clear532, the genius fertile and capable of comprehending every part of nature. They have formed empires, which has never been done by the remote nations; yet these latter have never been subjected by the former, being severed from them and remaining solitary, from the effect produced on them by their savage nature.

CHAP. 81. (79.)—OF EARTHQUAKES.

According to the doctrine of the Babylonians, earthquakes and clefts of the earth, and occurrences of this kind, are supposed to be produced by the influence of the stars, especially of the three to which they ascribe thunder533; and to be caused by the stars moving with the sun, or being in conjunction with it, and, more particularly, when they are in the quartile aspect534. If we are to credit the report, a most admirable and immortal spirit, as it were of a divine nature, should be ascribed to Anaximander the Milesian, who, they say, warned the Lacedæmonians to beware of their city and their houses535. For he predicted that an earthquake was at hand, when both the whole of their city was destroyed and a large portion of Mount Taygetus, which projected in the form of a ship, was broken off, and added farther ruin to the previous destruction. Another prediction is ascribed to Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras, and this was divine; by a draught of water from a well, he foresaw and predicted that there would be an earthquake in that place536. And if these things be true, how nearly do these individuals approach to the Deity, even during their lifetime! But I leave every one to judge of these matters as he pleases. I certainly conceive the winds to be the cause of earthquakes; for the earth never trembles except when the sea is quite calm, and when the heavens are so tranquil that the birds cannot maintain their flight, all the air which should support them being withdrawn537; nor does it ever happen until after great winds, the gust being pent up, as it were, in the fissures and concealed hollows. For the trembling of the earth resembles thunder in the clouds; nor does the yawning of the earth differ from the bursting of the lightning; the enclosed air struggling and striving to escape538.

CHAP. 82. (80.)—OF CLEFTS OF THE EARTH.

The earth is shaken in various ways, and wonderful effects are produced539; in one place the walls of cities being thrown down, and in others swallowed up by a deep cleft540; sometimes great masses of earth are heaped up, and rivers forced out, sometimes even flame and hot springs541, and at others the course of rivers is turned. A terrible noise precedes and accompanies the shock542; sometimes a murmuring, like the lowing of cattle, or like human voices, or the clashing of arms. This depends on the substance which receives the sound, and the shape of the caverns or crevices through which it issues; it being more shrill from a narrow opening, more hoarse from one that is curved, producing a loud reverberation from hard bodies, a sound like a boiling fluid543 from moist substances, fluctuating in stagnant water, and roaring when forced against solid bodies. There is, therefore, often the sound without any motion. Nor is it a simple motion, but one that is tremulous and vibratory. The cleft sometimes remains, displaying what it has swallowed up; sometimes concealing it, the mouth being closed and the soil being brought over it, so that no vestige is left; the city being, as it were, devoured, and the tract of country engulfed. Maritime districts are more especially subject to shocks. Nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them; I have found, by my inquiries, that the Alps and the Apennines are frequently shaken. The shocks happen more frequently in the autumn and in the spring, as is the case also with thunder. There are seldom shocks in Gaul and in Egypt; in the latter it depends on the prevalence of summer, in the former, of winter. They also happen more frequently in the night than in the day. The greatest shocks are in the morning and the evening; but they often take place at day-break, and sometimes at noon. They also take place during eclipses of the sun and of the moon, because at that time storms are lulled. They are most frequent when great heat succeeds to showers, or showers succeed to great heat544.

CHAP. 83. (81.)—SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING EARTHQUAKE.

There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on shipboard, as they are struck by a sudden motion of the waves, without these being raised by any gust of wind. And things that are in the vessels shake as they do in houses, and give notice by their creaking; also the birds, when they settle upon the vessels, are not without their alarms. There is also a sign in the heavens; for, when a shock is near at hand, either in the daytime or a little after sunset, a cloud is stretched out in the clear sky, like a long thin line545. The water in wells is also more turbid than usual, and it emits a disagreeable odour546.

CHAP. 84. (82.)—PRESERVATIVES AGAINST FUTURE EARTHQUAKES.

These same places547, however, afford protection, and this is also the case where there is a number of caverns, for they give vent to the confined vapour, a circumstance which has been remarked in certain towns, which have been less shaken where they have been excavated by many sewers. And, in the same town, those parts that are excavated548 are safer than the other parts, as is understood to be the case at Naples in Italy, the part of it which is solid being more liable to injury. Arched buildings are also the most safe, also the angles of walls, the shocks counteracting each other; walls made of brick also suffer less from the shocks549. There is also a great difference in the nature of the motions550, where various motions are experienced. It is the safest when it vibrates and causes a creaking in the building, and where it swells and rises upwards, and settles with an alternate motion. It is also harmless when the buildings coming together butt against each other in opposite directions, for the motions counteract each other. A movement like the rolling of waves is dangerous, or when the motion is impelled in one direction. The tremors cease when the vapour bursts out551; but if they do not soon cease, they continue for forty days; generally, indeed, for a longer time: some have lasted even for one or two years.

CHAP. 85. (83.)—PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH WHICH HAVE OCCURRED ONCE ONLY.

A great prodigy of the earth, which never happened more than once, I have found mentioned in the books of the Etruscan ceremonies, as having taken place in the district of Mutina, during the consulship of Lucius Martius and Sextus Julius552. Two mountains rushed together, falling upon each other with a very loud crash, and then receding; while in the daytime flame and smoke issued from them; a great crowd of Roman knights, and families of people, and travellers on the Æmilian way, being spectators of it. All the farm-houses were thrown down by the shock, and a great number of animals that were in them were killed; it was in the year before the Social war; and I am in doubt whether this event or the civil commotions were more fatal to the territory of Italy. The prodigy which happened in our own age was no less wonderful; in the last year of the emperor Nero553, as I have related in my history of his times554, when certain fields and olive grounds in the district of Marrucinum, belonging to Vectius Marcellus, a Roman knight, the steward of Nero, changed places with each other555, although the public highway was interposed.

CHAP. 86. (84.)—WONDERFUL CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING EARTHQUAKES.

Inundations of the sea take place at the same time with earthquakes556; the water being impregnated with the same spirit557, and received into the bosom of the earth which subsides. The greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory was in the reign of Tiberius558, by which twelve cities of Asia were laid prostrate in one night. They occurred the most frequently during the Punic war, when we had accounts brought to Rome of fifty-seven earthquakes in the space of a single year. It was during this year559 that the Carthaginians and the Romans, who were fighting at the lake Thrasimenus, were neither of them sensible of a very great shock during the battle560. Nor is it an evil merely consisting in the danger which is produced by the motion; it is an equal or a greater evil when it is considered as a prodigy561. The city of Rome never experienced a shock, which was not the forerunner of some great calamity.

CHAP. 87. (85.)—IN WHAT PLACES THE SEA HAS RECEDED.

The same cause produces an increase of the land; the vapour, when it cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the surface562. For the land is not merely produced by what is brought down the rivers, as the islands called Echinades are formed by the river Achelous, and the greater part of Egypt by the Nile, where, according to Homer, it was a day and a night’s journey from the main land to the island of Pharos563; but, in some cases, by the receding of the sea, as, according to the same author, was the case with the Circæan isles564. The same thing also happened in the harbour of Ambracia, for a space of 10,000 paces, and was also said to have taken place for 5000 at the Piræus of Athens565, and likewise at Ephesus, where formerly the sea washed the walls of the temple of Diana. Indeed, if we may believe Herodotus566, the sea came beyond Memphis, as far as the mountains of Æthiopia, and also from the plains of Arabia. The sea also surrounded Ilium and the whole of Teuthrania, and covered the plain through which the Mæander flows567.

CHAP. 88. (86.)—THE MODE IN WHICH ISLANDS RISE UP.

Land is sometimes formed in a different manner, rising suddenly out of the sea, as if nature was compensating the earth for its losses568, restoring in one place what she had swallowed up in another.

CHAP. 89. (87.)—WHAT ISLANDS HAVE BEEN FORMED, AND AT WHAT PERIODS.

Delos and Rhodes569, islands which have now been long famous, are recorded to have risen up in this way. More lately there have been some smaller islands formed; Anapha, which is beyond Melos; Nea, between Lemnos and the Hellespont; Halone, between Lebedos and Teos; Thera570 and Therasia, among the Cyclades, in the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad571. And among the same islands, 130 years afterwards, Hiera, also called Automate572, made its appearance; also Thia, at the distance of two stadia from the former, 110 years afterwards, in our own times, when M. Junius Silanus and L. Balbus were consuls, on the 8th of the ides of July573.

(88.) Opposite to us, and near to Italy, among the Æolian isles, an island emerged from the sea; and likewise one near Crete, 2500 paces in extent, and with warm springs in it; another made its appearance in the third year of the 163rd Olympiad574, in the Tuscan gulf, burning with a violent explosion. There is a tradition too that a great number of fishes were floating about the spot, and that those who employed them for food immediately expired. It is said that the Pithecusan isles rose up, in the same way, in the bay of Campania, and that, shortly afterwards, the mountain Epopos, from which flame had suddenly burst forth, was reduced to the level of the neighbouring plain. In the same island, it is said, that a town was sunk in the sea; that in consequence of another shock, a lake burst out, and that, by a third, Prochytas was formed into an island, the neighbouring mountains being rolled away from it.

CHAP 90.—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEPARATED BY THE SEA.

In the ordinary course of things islands are also formed by this means. The sea has torn Sicily from Italy575, Cyprus from Syria, Eubœa from Bœotia576, Atalante and Macris577 from Eubœa, Besbycus from Bithynia, and Leucosia from the promontory of the Sirens.

CHAP. 91. (89.)—ISLANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNITED TO THE MAIN LAND.

Again, islands are taken from the sea and added to the main land; Antissa578 to Lesbos, Zephyrium to Halicarnassus, Æthusa to Myndus, Dromiscus and Perne to Miletus, Narthecusa to the promontory of Parthenium. Hybanda, which was formerly an island of Ionia, is now 200 stadia distant from the sea. Syries is now become a part of Ephesus, and, in the same neighbourhood, Derasidas and Sophonia form part of Magnesia; while Epidaurus and Oricum are no longer islands579.

CHAP. 92. (90.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN TOTALLY CHANGED INTO SEAS.

The sea has totally carried off certain lands, and first of all, if we are to believe Plato580, for an immense space where the Atlantic ocean is now extended. More lately we see what has been produced by our inland sea; Acarnania has been overwhelmed by the Ambracian gulf, Achaia by the Corinthian, Europe and Asia by the Propontis and Pontus. And besides these, the sea has rent asunder Leucas, Antirrhium, the Hellespont, and the two Bosphori581.

CHAP. 93. (91.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SWALLOWED UP.

And not to speak of bays and gulfs, the earth feeds on itself; it has devoured the very high mountain of Cybotus, with the town of Curites; also Sipylus in Magnesia582, and formerly, in the same place, a very celebrated city, which was called Tantalis; also the land belonging to the cities Galanis and Gamales in Phœnicia, together with the cities themselves; also Phegium, the most lofty ridge in Æthiopia583. Nor are the shores of the sea more to be depended upon.

CHAP. 94. (92.)—CITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY THE SEA.

The sea near the Palus Mæotis has carried away Pyrrha and Antissa, also Elice and Bura584 in the gulf of Corinth, traces of which places are visible in the ocean. From the island Cea it has seized on 30,000 paces, which were suddenly torn off, with many persons on them. In Sicily also the half of the city of Tyndaris, and all the part of Italy which is wanting585; in like manner it carried off Eleusina in Bœotia586.

CHAP. 95. (93.)—OF VENTS587 IN THE EARTH.

But let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever may be regarded as the sepulchres of cities588; let us rather speak of the wonders of the earth than of the crimes of nature. But, by Hercules! the history of the heavens themselves would not be more difficult to relate:—the abundance of metals, so various, so rich, so prolific, rising up589 during so many ages; when, throughout all the world, so much is, every day, destroyed by fire, by waste, by shipwreck, by wars, and by frauds; and while so much is consumed by luxury and by such a number of people:—the figures on gems, so multiplied in their forms; the variously-coloured spots on certain stones, and the whiteness of others, excluding everything except light:—the virtues of medicinal springs, and the perpetual fires bursting out in so many places, for so many ages:—the exhalation of deadly vapours, either emitted from caverns590, or from certain unhealthy districts; some of them fatal to birds alone, as at Soracte, a district near the city591; others to all animals, except to man592, while others are so to man also, as in the country of Sinuessa and Puteoli. They are generally called vents, and, by some persons, Charon’s sewers, from their exhaling a deadly vapour. Also at Amsanctum, in the country of the Hirpini, at the temple of Mephitis593, there is a place which kills all those who enter it. And the same takes place at Hierapolis in Asia594, where no one can enter with safety, except the priest of the great Mother of the Gods. In other places there are prophetic caves, where those who are intoxicated with the vapour which rises from them predict future events595, as at the most noble of all oracles, Delphi. In which cases, what mortal is there who can assign any other cause, than the divine power of nature, which is everywhere diffused, and thus bursts forth in various places?

CHAP. 96. (94.)—OF CERTAIN LANDS WHICH ARE ALWAYS SHAKING, AND OF FLOATING ISLANDS.

There are certain lands which shake when any one passes over them596; as in the territory of the Gabii, not far from the city of Rome, there are about 200 acres which shake when cavalry passes over it: the same thing takes place at Reate.

(95.) There are certain islands which are always floating597, as in the territory of the Cæcubum598, and of the above-mentioned Reate, of Mutina, and of Statonia. In the lake of Vadimonis and the waters of Cutiliæ there is a dark wood, which is never seen in the same place for a day and a night together. In Lydia, the islands named Calaminæ are not only driven about by the wind, but may be even pushed at pleasure from place to place, by poles: many citizens saved themselves by this means in the Mithridatic war. There are some small islands in the Nymphæus, called the Dancers599, because, when choruses are sung, they are moved by the motions of those who beat time. In the great Italian lake of Tarquinii, there are two islands with groves on them, which are driven about by the wind, so as at one time to exhibit the figure of a triangle and at another of a circle; but they never form a square600.

CHAP. 97. (96.)—PLACES IN WHICH IT NEVER RAINS.

There is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus, in a certain court of which it never rains; also at Nea, a town of Troas, in the spot which surrounds the statue of Minerva: in this place also the remains of animals that are sacrificed never putrefy601.

CHAP. 98.—THE WONDERS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES COLLECTED TOGETHER.

Near Harpasa, a town of Asia, there stands a terrific rock, which may be moved by a single finger; but if it be pushed by the force of the whole body, it resists602. In the Tauric peninsula, in the state of the Parasini, there is a kind of earth which cures all wounds603. About Assos, in Troas, a stone is found, by which all bodies are consumed; it is called Sarcophagus604. There are two mountains near the river Indus; the nature of one is to attract iron, of the other to repel it: hence, if there be nails in the shoes, the feet cannot be drawn off the one, or set down on the other605. It has been noticed, that at Locris and Crotona, there has never been a pestilence, nor have they ever suffered from an earthquake; in Lycia there are always forty calm days before an earthquake. In the territory of Argyripa the corn which is sown never springs up. At the altars of Mucius, in the country of the Veii, and about Tusculum, and in the Cimmerian Forest, there are places in which things that are pushed into the ground cannot be pulled out again. The hay which is grown in Crustuminium is noxious on the spot, but elsewhere it is wholesome606.

CHAP. 99. (97.)—CONCERNING THE CAUSE OF THE FLOWING AND EBBING OF THE SEA.

Much has been said about the nature of waters; but the most wonderful circumstance is the alternate flowing and ebbing of the tides, which exists, indeed, under various forms, but is caused by the sun and the moon. The tide flows twice and ebbs twice between each two risings of the moon, always in the space of twenty-four hours. First, the moon rising with the stars607 swells out the tide, and after some time, having gained the summit of the heavens, she declines from the meridian and sets, and the tide subsides. Again, after she has set, and moves in the heavens under the earth, as she approaches the meridian on the opposite side, the tide flows in; after which it recedes until she again rises to us. But the tide of the next day is never at the same time with that of the preceding; as if the planet was in attendance608, greedily drinking up the sea, and continually rising in a different place from what she did the day before. The intervals are, however, equal, being always of six hours; not indeed in respect of any particular day or night or place609, but equinoctial hours, and therefore they are unequal as estimated by the length of common hours, since a greater number of them610 fall on some certain days or nights, and they are never equal everywhere except at the equinox. This is a great, most clear, and even divine proof of the dullness of those, who deny that the stars go below the earth and rise up again, and that nature presents the same face in the same states of their rising and setting611; for the course of the stars is equally obvious in the one case as in the other, producing the same effect as when it is manifest to the sight.

There is a difference in the tides, depending on the moon, of a complicated nature, and, first, as to the period of seven days. For the tides are of moderate height from the new moon to the first quarter; from this time they increase, and are the highest at the full: they then decrease. On the seventh day they are equal to what they were at the first quarter, and they again increase from the time that she is at first quarter on the other side. At her conjunction with the sun they are equally high as at the full. When the moon is in the northern hemisphere, and recedes further from the earth, the tides are lower than when, going towards the south, she exercises her influence at a less distance612. After an interval of eight years, and the hundredth revolution of the moon, the periods and the heights of the tides return into the same order as at first, this planet always acting upon them; and all these effects are likewise increased by the annual changes of the sun613, the tides rising up higher at the equinoxes, and more so at the autumnal than at the vernal; while they are lower614 about the winter solstice, and still more so at the summer solstice; not indeed precisely at the points of time which I have mentioned, but a few days after615; for example, not exactly at the full nor at the new moon, but after them; and not immediately when the moon becomes visible or invisible, or has advanced to the middle of her course, but generally about two hours later than the equinoctial hours616; the effect of what is going on in the heavens being felt after a short interval; as we observe with respect to lightning, thunder, and thunderbolts.

But the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce greater inundations than the tides of the other seas; whether it be that the whole of the universe taken together is more full of life than its individual parts, or that the large open space feels more sensibly the power of the planet, as it moves freely about, than when restrained within narrow bounds. On which account neither lakes nor rivers are moved in the same manner. Pytheas617 of Massilia informs us, that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubits618. Inland seas are enclosed as in a harbour, but, in some parts of them, there is a more free space which obeys the influence619. Among many other examples, the force of the tide will carry us in three days from Italy to Utica, when the sea is tranquil and there is no impulse from the sails620. But these motions are more felt about the shores than in the deep parts of the seas, as in the body the extremities of the veins feel the pulse, which is the vital spirit, more than the other parts621. And in most estuaries, on account of the unequal rising of the stars in each tract, the tides differ from each other, but this respects the period, not the nature of them; as is the case in the Syrtes.

CHAP. 100.—WHERE THE TIDES RISE AND FALL IN AN UNUSUAL MANNER.

There are, however, some tides which are of a peculiar nature, as in the Tauromenian Euripus622, where the ebb and flow is more frequent than in other places, and in Eubœa, where it takes place seven times during the day and the night. The tides intermit three times during each month, being the 7th, 8th and 9th day of the moon623. At Gades, which is very near the temple of Hercules, there is a spring enclosed like a well, which sometimes rises and falls with the ocean, and, at other times, in both respects contrary to it. In the same place there is another well, which always agrees with the ocean. On the shores of the Bætis624, there is a town where the wells become lower when the tide rises, and fill again when it ebbs; while at other times they remain stationary. The same thing occurs in one well in the town of Hispalis625, while there is nothing peculiar in the other wells. The Euxine always flows into the Propontis, the water never flowing back into the Euxine626.

CHAP. 101. (98.)—WONDERS OF THE SEA.

All seas are purified at the full moon627; some also at stated periods. At Messina and Mylæ a refuse matter, like dung628, is cast up on the shore, whence originated the story of the oxen of the Sun having had their stable at that place. To what has been said above (not to omit anything with which I am acquainted) Aristotle adds, that no animal dies except when the tide is ebbing. The observation has been often made on the ocean of Gaul; but it has only been found true with respect to man629.

CHAP. 102. (99.)—THE POWER OF THE MOON OVER THE LAND AND THE SEA.

Hence we may certainly conjecture, that the moon is not unjustly regarded as the star of our life630. This it is that replenishes the earth631; when she approaches it, she fills all bodies, while, when she recedes, she empties them. From this cause it is that shell-fish grow with her increase632, and that those animals which are without blood more particularly experience her influence; also, that the blood of man is increased or diminished in proportion to the quantity of her light; also that the leaves and vegetables generally, as I shall describe in the proper place633, feel her influence, her power penetrating all things.

CHAP. 103. (100.)—THE POWER OF THE SUN.

Fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun; we have therefore regarded it as a masculine star, burning up and absorbing everything634.

CHAP. 104.—WHY THE SEA IS SALT.

Hence it is that the widely-diffused sea is impregnated with the flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet and mild being evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily accomplishes; while all the more acrid and thick matter is left behind; on which account the water of the sea is less salt at some depth than at the surface. And this is a more true cause of the acrid flavour, than that the sea is the continued perspiration of the land635, or that the greater part of the dry vapour is mixed with it, or that the nature of the earth is such that it impregnates the waters, and, as it were, medicates them636. Among the prodigies which have occurred, there is one which happened when Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, was expelled from his kingdom; that, for the space of one day, the water in the harbour became sweet.

(101.) The moon, on the contrary, is said to be a feminine and delicate planet, and also nocturnal; also that it resolves humours and draws them out, but does not carry them off. It is manifest that the carcases of wild beasts are rendered putrid by its beams, that, during sleep, it draws up the accumulated torpor into the head, that it melts ice, and relaxes all things by its moistening spirit637. Thus the changes of nature compensate each other, and are always adequate to their destined purpose; some of them congealing the elements of the stars and others dissolving them. The moon is said to be fed by fresh, and the sun by salt water.

CHAP. 105. (102.)—WHERE THE SEA IS THE DEEPEST.

Fabianus638 informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is 15 stadia639. We learn from others, that in the Euxine, opposite to the nation of the Coraxi, at what is called the Depths of the Euxine640, about 300 stadia641 from the main land, the sea is immensely deep, no bottom having been found.

CHAP. 106. (103.)—THE WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND RIVERS.

It is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out close to the sea, as from pipes. But there is no end to the wonders that are connected with the nature of waters. Fresh water floats on sea water, no doubt from its being lighter; and therefore sea water, which is of a heavier nature642, supports better what floats upon it. And, in some places, different kinds of fresh water float upon each other; as that of the river which falls into the Fucinus; that of the Addua into the Larius; of the Ticinus into the Verbanus; of the Mincius into the Benacus; of the Ollius into the Sevinus; and of the Rhone into the Leman lake643 (this last being beyond the Alps, the others in Italy): all which rivers passing through the lakes for many miles, generally carry off no more water than they bring with them. The same thing is said to occur in the Orontes, a river of Syria, and in many others.

Some rivers, from a real hatred of the sea, pass under it, as does Arethusa, a fountain of Syracuse, in which the substances are found that are thrown into the Alpheus; which, after flowing by Olympia, is discharged into the sea, on the shore of the Peloponnesus644. The Lycus in Asia645, the Erasinus in Argolis, and the Tigris646 in Mesopotamia, sink into the earth and burst out again. Substances which are thrown into the fountain of Æsculapius at Athens647 are cast up at the fountain of Phalerum. The river which sinks into the ground in the plain of Atinum648 comes up again at the distance of twenty miles, and the Timavus does the same in Aquileia649.

In the lake Asphaltites, in Judæa, which produces bitumen, no substance will sink, nor in the lake Arethusa650, in the Greater Armenia: in this lake, although it contains nitre, fish are found. In the country of the Salentini, near the town of Manduria, there is a lake651 full to the brim, the waters of which are never diminished by what is taken out of it, nor increased by what is added. Wood, which is thrown into the river of the Cicones652, or into the lake Velinus in Picenum, becomes coated with a stony crust, while in the Surius, a river of Colchis, the whole substance becomes as hard as stone. In the same manner, in the Silarus653, beyond Surrentum, not only twigs which are immersed in it, but likewise leaves are petrified; the water at the same time being proper for drinking. In the stream which runs from the marsh of Reate654 there is a rock, which continues to increase in size, and in the Red Sea olive-trees and green shrubs are produced655.

There are many springs which are remarkable for their warmth. This is the case even among the ridges of the Alps656, and in the sea itself, between Italy and Ænaria, as in the bay of Baiæ, and in the Liris and many other rivers657. There are many places in which fresh water may be procured from the sea, as at the Chelidonian Isles, and at Arados, and in the ocean at Gades. Green plants are produced in the warm springs of Padua, frogs in those of Pisa, and fish in those of Vetulonia in Etruria, which is not far from the sea. In Casinas there is a cold river called Scatebra, which in summer is more full of water658. In this, as in the river Stymphalis, in Arcadia, small water-mice are produced. The fountain of Jupiter in Dodona, although it is as cold as ice, and extinguishes torches that are plunged into it, yet, if they be brought near it, it kindles them again659. This spring always becomes dry at noon, from which circumstance it is called Ἀναπαυόμενον660: it then increases and becomes full at midnight, after which it again visibly decreases. In Illyricum there is a cold spring, over which if garments are spread they take fire. The pool of Jupiter Ammon, which is cold during the day, is warm during the night661. In the country of the Troglodytæ662, what they call the Fountain of the Sun, about noon is fresh and very cold; it then gradually grows warm, and, at midnight, becomes hot and saline663.

In the middle of the day, during summer, the source of the Po, as if reposing itself, is always dry664. In the island of Tenedos there is a spring, which, after the summer solstice, is full of water, from the third hour of the night to the sixth665. The fountain Inopus, in the island of Delos, decreases and increases in the same manner as the Nile, and also at the same periods666. There is a small island in the sea, opposite to the river Timavus, containing warm springs, which increase and decrease at the same time with the tides of the sea667. In the territory of Pitinum, on the other side of the Apennines, the river Novanus, which during the solstice is quite a torrent, is dry in the winter668.

In Faliscum, all the water which the oxen drink turns them white; in Bœotia, the river Melas turns the sheep black; the Cephissus, which flows out of a lake of the same name, turns them white669; again, the Peneus turns them black, and the Xanthus, near Ilium, makes them red, whence the river derives its name670. In Pontus, the river Astaces waters certain plains, where the mares give black milk, which the people use in diet. In Reate there is a spring called Neminia, which rises up sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and in this way indicates a change in the produce of the earth671. There is a spring in the harbour of Brundisium that yields water which never becomes putrid at sea. The water of the Lyncestis, which is said to be acidulous, intoxicates like wine672; this is the case also in Paphlagonia673 and in the territory of Calenum674. In the island of Andros, at the temple of Father Bacchus, we are assured by Mucianus, who was thrice consul, that there is a spring, which, on the nones of January, always has the flavour of wine; it is called Διὸς Θεοδοσία675. Near Nonacris, in Arcadia, the Styx676, which is not unlike it either in odour or in colour, instantly destroys those who drink it. Also in Librosus, a hill in the country of the Tauri, there are three springs which inevitably produce death, but without pain. In the territory of the Carrinenses in Spain677, two springs burst out close together, the one of which absorbs everything, the other throws them out. In the same country there is another spring, which gives to all the fish the appearance of gold, although, when out of the water, they do not differ in any respect from other fish. In the territory of Como, near the Larian lake, there is a copious spring, which always swells up and subsides again every hour678. In the island of Cydonea679, before Lesbos, there is a warm fountain, which flows only during the spring season. The lake Sinnaus680, in Asia, is impregnated with wormwood, which grows about it. At Colophon, in the cave of the Clarian Apollo, there is a pool, by the drinking of which a power is acquired of uttering wonderful oracles; but the lives of those who drink of it are shortened681. In our own times, during the last years of Nero’s life, we have seen rivers flowing backwards, as I have stated in my history of his times682.

And indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact, that all springs are colder in summer than in winter683, as well as these other wonderful operations of nature; that copper and lead sink when in a mass, but float when spread out684; and of things that are equally heavy, some will sink to the bottom, while others will remain on the surface685; that heavy bodies are more easily moved in water686; that a stone from Scyros, although very large, will float, while the same, when broken into small pieces, sinks687; that the body of an animal, newly deprived of life, sinks, but that, when it is swelled out, it floats688; that empty vessels are drawn out of the water with no more ease than those that are full689; that rain-water is more useful for salt-pits than other kinds of water690; that salt cannot be made, unless it is mixed with fresh water691; that salt water freezes with more difficulty692, and is more readily heated693; that the sea is warmer in winter694 and more salt in the autumn695; that everything is soothed by oil, and that this is the reason why divers send out small quantities of it from their mouths, because it smoothes any part which is rough696 and transmits the light to them; that snow never falls in the deep part of the sea697; that although water generally has a tendency downwards, fountains rise up698, and that this is the case even at the foot of Ætna699, burning as it does, so as to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance of 150 miles?

CHAP. 107.—THE WONDERS OF FIRE AND WATER UNITED.

And now I must give an account of some of the wonders of fire, which is the fourth element of nature; but first those produced by means of water.

CHAP. 108. (104.)—OF MALTHA.

In Samosata, a city of Commagene700, there is a pool which discharges an inflammable mud, called Maltha701. It adheres to every solid body which it touches, and moreover, when touched, it follows you, if you attempt to escape from it. By means of it the people defended their walls against Lucullus, and the soldiers were burned in their armour702. It is even set on fire in water. We learn by experience that it can be extinguished only by earth.

CHAP. 109. (105.)—OF NAPHTHA.

Naphtha is a substance of a similar nature703 (it is so called about Babylon, and in the territory of the Astaceni, in Parthia704), flowing like liquid bitumen. It has a great affinity to fire, which instantly darts on it wherever it is seen705. It is said, that in this way it was that Medea burned Jason’s mistress; her crown having taken fire, when she approached the altar for the purpose of sacrificing706.

CHAP. 110. (106.)—PLACES WHICH ARE ALWAYS BURNING.

Among the wonders of mountains there is Ætna, which always burns in the night707, and for so long a period has always had materials for combustion, being in the winter buried in snow, and having the ashes which it has ejected covered with frost. Nor is it in this mountain alone that nature rages, threatening to consume the earth708; in Phaselis, the mountain Chimæra burns, and indeed with a continual flame, day and night709. Ctesias of Cnidos informs us, that this fire is kindled by water, while it is extinguished by earth and by hay710. In the same country of Lycia, the mountains of Hephæstius, when touched with a flaming torch711, burn so violently, that even the stones in the river and the sand burn, while actually in the water: this fire is also increased by rain. If a person makes furrows in the ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire, it is said that a stream of flame will follow it. The summit of Cophantus, in Bactria712, burns during the night; and this is the case in Media and at Sittacene713, on the borders of Persia; likewise in Susa, at the White Tower, from fifteen apertures714, the greatest of which also burns in the daytime. The plain of Babylon throws up flame from a place like a fish-pond715, an acre in extent. Near Hesperium, a mountain of the Æthiopians716, the fields shine in the night-time like stars; the same thing takes place in the territory of the Megalopolitani. This fire, however, is internal717, mild, and not burning the foliage of a dense wood which is over it718. There is also the crater of Nymphæum719, which is always burning, in the neighbourhood of a cold fountain, and which, according to Theopompus, presages direful calamities to the inhabitants of Apollonia720. It is increased by rain721, and it throws out bitumen, which, becoming mixed with the fountain, renders it unfit to be tasted; it is, at other times, the weakest of all the bitumens. But what are these compared to other wonders? Hiera, one of the Æolian isles, in the middle of the sea, near Italy, together with the sea itself, during the Social war, burned for several days722, until expiation was made, by a deputation from the senate. There is a hill in Æthiopia called Θεῶν ὄχημα723, which burns with the greatest violence, throwing out flame that consumes everything, like the sun724. In so many places, and with so many fires, does nature burn the earth!

CHAP. 111. (107.)—WONDERS OF FIRE ALONE.

But since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to produce itself, and to increase from the smallest spark, what must we suppose will be the effect of all those funeral piles of the earth725? What must be the nature of that thing, which, in all parts of the world, supplies this most greedy voracity without destroying itself? To these fires must be added those innumerable stars and the great sun itself. There are also the fires made by men726, those which are innate in certain kinds of stones, those produced by the friction of wood727, and those in the clouds, which give rise to lightning. It really exceeds all other wonders, that one single day should pass in which everything is not consumed, especially when we reflect, that concave mirrors placed opposite to the sun’s rays produce flame more readily than any other kind of fire; and that numerous small but natural fires abound everywhere. In Nymphæum there issues from a rock a fire which is kindled by rain; it also issues from the waters of the Scantia728. This indeed is a feeble flame, since it passes off, remaining only a short time on any body to which it is applied: an ash tree, which overshadows this fiery spring, remains always green729. In the territory of Mutina fire issues from the ground on the days that are consecrated to Vulcan730. It is stated by some authors, that if a burning body falls on the fields below Aricia731, the ground is set on fire; and that the stones in the territory of the Sabines and of the Sidicini732, if they be oiled, burn with flame. In Egnatia733, a town of Salentinum, there is a sacred stone, upon which, when wood is placed, flame immediately bursts forth. In the altar of Juno Lacinia734, which is in the open air, the ashes remain unmoved, although the winds may be blowing from all quarters.

It appears also that there are sudden fires both in waters and even in the human body; that the whole of Lake Thrasymenus was on fire735; that when Servius Tullius, while a child, was sleeping, flame darted out from his head736; and Valerius Antias informs us, that the same flame appeared about L. Marcius, when he was pronouncing the funeral oration over the Scipios, who were killed in Spain; and exhorting the soldiers to avenge their death. I shall presently mention more facts of this nature, and in a more distinct manner; in this place these wonders are mixed up with other subjects. But my mind, having carried me beyond the mere interpretation of nature, is anxious to lead, as it were by the hand, the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe.

CHAP. 112. (108.)—THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH.

Our part of the earth, of which I propose to give an account, floating as it were in the ocean which surrounds it (as I have mentioned above737), stretches out to the greatest extent from east to west, viz. from India to the Pillars consecrated to Hercules at Gades, being a distance of 8568 miles738, according to the statement of Artemidorus739, or according to that of Isidorus740, 9818 miles. Artemidorus adds to this 491 miles, from Gades, going round by the Sacred Promontory, to the promontory of Artabrum741, which is the most projecting part of Spain.

This measurement may be taken in two directions. From the Ganges, at its mouth, where it discharges itself into the Eastern ocean, passing through India and Parthyene, to Myriandrus742, a city of Syria, in the bay of Issus, is a distance of 5215 miles743. Thence, going directly by sea, by the island of Cyprus, Patara in Lycia, Rhodes, and Astypalæa, islands in the Carpathian sea, by Tænarum in Laconia, Lilybæum in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia, is 2103 miles. Thence to Glades is 1250 miles, making the whole distance from the Eastern ocean 8568 miles744.

The other way, which is more certain, is chiefly by land. From the Ganges to the Euphrates is 5169 miles; thence to Mazaca, a town in Cappadocia, is 319 miles; thence, through Phrygia and Caria, to Ephesus is 415 miles; from Ephesus, across the Ægean sea to Delos, is 200 miles; to the Isthmus is 212^1⁄2 miles; thence, first by land and afterwards by the sea of Lechæum and the gulf of Corinth, to Patræ in Peloponnesus, 90 miles; to the promontory of Leucate 87^1⁄2 miles; as much more to Corcyra; to the Acroceraunian mountains 132^1⁄2, to Brundisium 87^1⁄2, and to Rome 360 miles. To the Alps, at the village of Scingomagum745, is 519 miles; through Gaul to Illiberis at the Pyrenees, 927; to the ocean and the coast of Spain, 331 miles; across the passage of Gades 7^1⁄2 miles; which distances, according to the estimate of Artemidorus, make altogether 8945 miles.

The breadth of the earth, from south to north, is commonly supposed to be about one-half only of its length, viz. 4490 miles; hence it is evident how much the heat has stolen from it on one side and the cold on the other: for I do not suppose that the land is actually wanting, or that the earth has not the form of a globe; but that, on each side, the uninhabitable parts have not been discovered. This measure then extends from the coast of the Æthiopian ocean, the most distant part which is habitable, to Meroë, 1000 miles746; thence to Alexandria 1250; to Rhodes 562; to Cnidos 87^1⁄2; to Cos 25; to Samos 100; to Chios 94; to Mitylene 65; to Tenedos 44; to the promontory of Sigæum 12^1⁄2; to the entrance of the Euxine 312^1⁄2; to the promontory of Carambis 350; to the entrance of the Palus Mæotis 312^1⁄2; and to the mouth of the Tanais 275 miles, which distance, if we went by sea, might be shortened 89 miles. Beyond the Tanais the most diligent authors have not been able to obtain any accurate measurement. Artemidorus supposes that everything beyond is undiscovered, since he confesses that, about the Tanais, the tribes of the Sarmatæ dwell, who extend towards the north pole. Isidorus adds 1250 miles, as the distance to Thule747; but this is mere conjecture. For my part, I believe that the boundaries of Sarmatia really extend to as great a distance as that mentioned above: for if it were not very extensive, how could it contain the innumerable tribes that are always changing their residence? And indeed I consider the uninhabitable portion of the world to be still greater; for it is well known that there are innumerable islands lying off the coast of Germany748, which have been only lately discovered.

The above is all that I consider worth relating about the length and the breadth of the earth749. But Eratosthenes750, a man who was peculiarly well skilled in all the more subtle parts of learning, and in this above everything else, and a person whom I perceive to be approved by every one, has stated the whole of this circuit to be 252,000 stadia, which, according to the Roman estimate, makes 31,500 miles. The attempt is presumptuous, but it is supported by such subtle arguments that we cannot refuse our assent. Hipparchus751, whom we must admire, both for the ability with which he controverts Eratosthenes, as well as for his diligence in everything else, has added to the above number not much less than 25,000 stadia.

(109.) Dionysodorus is certainly less worthy of confidence752; but I cannot omit this most remarkable instance of Grecian vanity. He was a native of Melos, and was celebrated for his knowledge of geometry; he died of old age in his native country. His female relations, who inherited his property, attended his funeral, and when they had for several successive days performed the usual rites, they are said to have found in his tomb an epistle written in his own name to those left above; it stated that he had descended from his tomb to the lowest part of the earth, and that it was a distance of 42,000 stadia. There were not wanting certain geometricians, who interpreted this epistle as if it had been sent from the middle of the globe, the point which is at the greatest distance from the surface, and which must necessarily be the centre of the sphere. Hence the estimate has been made that it is 252,000 stadia in circumference.

CHAP. 113.—THE HARMONICAL PROPORTION OF THE UNIVERSE.

That harmonical proportion, which compels nature to be always consistent with itself, obliges us to add to the above measure, 12,000 stadia; and this makes the earth one ninety-sixth part of the whole universe.

Summary.—The facts, statements, and observations contained in this Book amount in number to 417.

Roman authors quoted.—M. Varro753, Sulpicius Gallus754, Titus Cæsar755 the Emperor, Q. Tubero756, Tullius Tiro757, L. Piso758, T. Livius759, Cornelius Nepos760, Sebosus761, Cælius Antipater762, Fabianus763, Antias764, Mucianus765, Cæcina766, who wrote on the Etruscan discipline, Tarquitius767, who did the same, Julius Aquila768, who also did the same, and Sergius769.

Foreign authors quoted.—Plato770, Hipparchus771, Timæus772, Sosigenes773, Petosiris774, Necepsos775, the Pythagorean776 Philosophers, Posidonius777, Anaximander778, Epigenes779 the philosopher who wrote on Gnomonics, Euclid780, Cœranus781 the philosopher, Eudoxus782, Democritus783, Critodemus784, Thrasyllus785, Serapion786, Dicæarchus787, Archimedes788, Onesicritus789, Eratosthenes790, Pytheas791, Herodotus792, Aristotle793, Ctesias794, Artemidorus795 of Ephesus, Isidorus796 of Charax, and Theopompus797.

BOOK III.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

INTRODUCTION.

Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts; although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ, in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them, that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of the countries in which they respectively flourished; so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor contradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply given, and as briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the Straits of Gades798, where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured forth into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side, Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies between them799; the boundaries being the rivers Tanais800 and Nile. The Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen miles in length and five801 in breadth, measured from the village of Mellaria802 in Spain to the Album Promontorium803 or White Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles, and where greatest, ten; from so small a mouth as this does so immense an expanse of water open upon us! Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals, white with foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot the threshold of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla804 in Africa, and Calpe805 in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of Hercules806. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission, and so changed the face of nature.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE FIRST SET FORTH IN A GENERAL WAY.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without reason807, considered it, not as a third part only of the earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and, in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays, among which there are four Gulfs that are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of Spain; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as Locri and the Promontory of Bruttium808.

CHAP. 2.—OF SPAIN GENERALLY.

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the Farther Spain or Bætica809; next to which, beginning at the frontier town of Urgi810, is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian811 Spain, extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces, Lusitania812 and Bætica, the former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being divided from it by the river Ana813.

The source of this river is in the district of Laminium814, in the Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes, and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely disappears under ground815, and after frequently disappearing and again coming to light, finally discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the Pyrenees, running downwards along the sides of that chain, and, stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean816, is separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius817, the chains of the Oretani818 and the Carpetani819, and that of the Astures820.

CHAP. 3.—OF BÆTICA.

Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle, excels all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades821, of Corduba822, of Astigi823, and of Hispalis824. The total number of its towns is 175; of these nine are colonies825, and eight municipal towns826; twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old Latin rights827; six are free towns828, three federate829, and 120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following, beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-shore; the town of Onoba, surnamed Æstuaria830; the rivers Luxia and Urium831, flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the Marian832 Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of Corum833, with its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall have occasion to speak among the islands834. Next comes the Promontory of Juno835, and the port of Bæsippo836; the towns of Bœlo837 and Mellaria838, at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic; Carteia839, called by the Greeks Tartessos840; and the mountain of Calpe.

Along the coast of the inland sea841 is the town of Barbesula842 with its river; also Salduba843; the town of Suel844; and then Malaca845, with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this comes Mænoba846, with its river; then Sexifirmum847, surnamed Julium; Selambina848; Abdera849; and Murci850, which is at the boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing the Atlantic, is the country of the Bastuli851 and the Turditani. M. Varro informs us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Celts, and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain; that the name “Lusitania” is derived from the games (lusus) of Father Bacchus, or the fury (lyssa852) of his frantic attendants, and that Pan853 was the governor of the whole of it. But the traditions respecting Hercules854 and Pyrene, as well as Saturn, I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.

The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the town of Mentisa855, in the province of Tarraco, but in the Tugiensian Forest856; and near it rises the river Tader857, which waters the territory of Carthage858. At Ilorcum859 it turns away from the Funeral Pile860 of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its source it is but small, though during its course it receives many other streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their renown. It first enters Bætica in Ossigitania861, and glides gently, with a smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.

Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places inland are Segida862, also surnamed Augurina; Julia863, called Fidentia; Urgao864 or Alba, Ebora865 or Cerealis, Iliberri866 or Liberini, Ilipula867 or Laus, Artigi868 or Julienses, Vesci869 or Faventia, Singili870, Attegua871, Arialdunum, Agla Minor872, Bæbro873, Castra Vinaria874, Cisimbrium875, Hippo Nova or New Hippo876, Ilurco877, Osca878, Escua879, Sucubo880, Nuditanum, Old Tuati881; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction882 of Corduba. In the neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi883, also surnamed Laconicum, Iliturgi884 or Forum Julium, Ipasturgi885 or Triumphale, Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, Obulco886, which is also called Pontificense.

Next to these comes Epora887, a federate town, Sacili888 Martialium, and Onoba889. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman colony, surnamed Patricia890; here the Bætis first becomes navigable. There are also the towns of Carbula and Detunda891, and the river Singulis892, which falls into the Bætis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti, Arua893, Canama894, Evia, Ilipa895, surnamed Illa, and Italica896. On the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis897 named Romuliensis, and, on the opposite side898, the town of Osset899, surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Julî Genius900, Orippo, Caura901, Siarum, and the river Menoba902, which enters the Bætis on its right bank. Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the towns of Nebrissa903, surnamed Veneria, and of Colobona904. The colonies are, Asta905, which is also called Regia, and, more inland, that of Asido906, surnamed Cæsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi907, surnamed Augusta Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are Tucci, surnamed Augusta Gemella908, Itucci called Virtus Julia909, Attubi or Claritas Julia910, Urso911 or Genua Urbanorum; and among them in former times Munda912, which was taken with the son of Pompey. The free towns are Old Astigi913 and Ostippo914; the tributary towns are Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, Obulcula915, and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast, near where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no great distance, the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi916.

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas, beyond the districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is divided into two parts and the same number of nations; the Celtici917, who border upon Lusitania, in the jurisdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the verge918 of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns, which in Bætica are distinguished by the following epithets919, which have been given to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia920, Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia921, Segida that of Restituta Julia922, and Contributa923 that of Julia. What is now Curiga was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia924 was Laconimurgis, the present Fortunales were the Tereses925, and the Emanici were the Callenses926. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of Acinippo927, Arunda928, Aruci929, Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Sæpone, and Serippo.

The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which are by no means inconsiderable; Arsa930, Mellaria931, Mirobriga932, and Sisapo933, in the district of Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman citizens; and Læpia, Ulia934, Carisa935 surnamed Aurelia, Urgia936 or Castrum Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro, Belippo937, Barbesula, Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, Saguntia938, and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be 475 miles939, and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its boundaries extended to Carthage940, a circumstance which has often caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the result either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea has been long making encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores have advanced; while the course of rivers in this place has become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then, besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place, and some at another, and so proceed in different directions; and hence the result is, that no two accounts agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of Castulo941, on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci, which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth, measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject, when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world, could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus? For it was that emperor who completed the Portico942 which had been begun by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—OF NEARER SPAIN.

The ancient form of the Nearer Spain, like that of many other provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the Great, upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified that 877 towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain, had been reduced to subjection by him. The whole province is now divided into seven jurisdictions, those of Carthage943, of Tarraco, of Cæsar Augusta944, of Clunia945, of Asturica946, of Lucus947, and of the Bracari948. To these are to be added the islands, which will be described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent on others; besides which the province contains 179 towns. Of these, twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights of Roman citizens, eighteen with the old Latian rights, one confederate, and 135 tributary.

The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bastuli; after whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow, as we go inland, there are the Mentesani, the Oretani, and the Carpetani on the Tagus, and next to them the Vaccæi, the Vectones, and the Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest to the coast are Urci, and Barea949 included in Bætica, the district of Mavitania, next to it Deitania, and then Contestania, and the colony of Carthago Nova; from the Promontory of which, known as the Promontorium Saturni950, to the city of Cæsarea951 in Mauritania, the passage is a distance of 187 miles. The remaining objects worthy of mention on the coast are the river Tader952, and the free colony of Ilici953, whence the Ilicitanian Gulf954 derives its name; to this colony the Icositani are subordinate.

We next have Lucentum955, holding Latian rights; Dianium956, a tributary town; the river Sucro957, and in former times a town of the same name, forming the frontier of Contestania. Next is the district of Edetania, with the delightful expanse of a lake958 before it, and extending backward to Celtiberia. Valentia959, a colony, is situate three miles from the sea, after which comes the river Turium960, and Saguntum961 at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens famous for its fidelity, the river Uduba962, and the district of the Ilergaones963. The Iberus964, a river enriched by its commerce, takes its rise in the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town of Juliobriga965, and flows a distance of 450 miles; 260 of which, from the town of Varia966 namely, it is available for the purposes of navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been given by the Greeks to the whole of Spain.

Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river Subi967, and the colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as Carthage968 was by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Ilergetes, the town of Subur969, and the river Rubricatum970, beyond which begin the Laletani and the Indigetes971. Behind these, in the order in which they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the Pyrenees, are the Ausetani972, the Lacetani973, and along the Pyrenees, the Cerretani974, next to whom are the Vascones975. On the coast is the colony of Barcino976, surnamed Faventia; Bætulo977 and Iluro978, towns with Roman citizens; the river Larnum979, Blandæ980, the river Alba981; Emporiæ982, a city consisting of two parts, one peopled by the original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants of the Phocæans; and the river Ticher983. From this to the Venus Pyrenæa984, on the other side of the Promontory, is a distance of forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have been already mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of Tarraco: of these the most famous are—holding the rights of Roman citizens, the Dertusani985 and the Bisgargitani; enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the Cerretani, both Julian and Augustan, the Edetani986, the Gerundenses987, the Gessorienses988, and the Teari989, also called Julienses. Among the tributaries are the Aquicaldenses990, the Onenses, and the Bæculonenses991.

Cæsar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus, on the site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in the district of Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations. Of these there are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the Bellitani992, the Celsenses993, a former colony, the Calagurritani994, surnamed the Nassici, the Ilerdenses995, of the nation of the Surdaones, near whom is the river Sicoris, the Oscenses996 in the district of Vescitania, and the Turiasonenses997. Of those enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins, there are the Cascantenses998, the Ergavicenses999, the Graccuritani1000, the Leonicenses1001, and the Osicerdenses; of federate states, there are the Tarragenses1002; and of tributaries, the Arcobrigenses1003, the Andologenses1004, the Aracelitani1005, the Bursaonenses1006, the Calagurritani1007, who are also surnamed the Fibularenses, the Complutenses1008, the Carenses1009, the Cincenses1010, the Cortonenses, the Damanitani1011, the Larnenses1012, the Lursenses1013, the Lumberitani1014, the Lacetani, the Lubienses, the Pompelonenses1015, and the Segienses.

Sixty-five different nations resort to Carthage1016, besides the inhabitants of the islands. Of the Accitanian1017 colony, there are the Gemellenses, and the town of Libisosona1018, surnamed Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted Italian1019 rights. Of the colony of Salaria1020, there are the people of the following towns, enjoying the rights of ancient Latium: the Castulonenses, also called the Cæsari Venales, the Sætabitani1021 or Augustani, and the Valerienses1022. The best known among the tributaries are the Alabanenses1023, the Bastitani1024, the Consaburrenses1025, the Dianenses1026, the Egelestani1027, the Ilorcitani1028, the Laminitani, the Mentesani1029, both those called Oritani and those called Bastuli, and the Oretani who are surnamed Germani1030, the people of Segobriga1031 the capital of Celtiberia, those of Toletum1032 the capital of Carpetania, situate on the river Tagus, and after them the Viatienses and the Virgilienses1033.

To the jurisdiction of Clunia1034 the Varduli contribute fourteen nations, of whom we need only particularize the Albanenses1035, the Turmodigi1036, consisting of four tribes, among which are the Segisamonenses1037 and the Segisamaiulienses. To the same jurisdiction belong the Carietes1038 and the Vennenses with five states, among which are the Velienses. Thither too resort the Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among whom the Numantini1039 were especially famous. Also, among the eighteen states of the Vaccæi, there are the Intercatienses1040, the Pallantini1041, the Lacobrigenses, and the Caucenses1042. But among the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabri, Juliobriga1043 is the only place worthy of mention; and of the ten states of the Autrigones, Tritium and Virovesca1044. The river Areva1045 gives its name to the Arevaci; of whom there are six towns, Segontia1046 and Uxama1047, names which are frequently given to other places, as also Segovia1048 and Nova Augusta, Termes1049, and Clunia itself, the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and the Cantabri.

Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astures, who are divided into the Augustani1050 and the Transmontani, with the magnificent city of Asturica. Among these we have the Cigurri1051, the Pæsici, the Lancienses1052, and the Zoëlæ1053. The total number of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons.

The jurisdiction of Lucus1054 embraces, besides the Celtici and the Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known and with barbarous names. The number however of the free population amounts to nearly 166,000.

In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides the Bracari1055 themselves, we may mention, without wearying the reader, the Bibali, the Cœlerni, the Gallæci, the Hequæsi, the Limici, and the Querquerni.

The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the frontier of Castulo, is 6071056 miles, and a little more if we follow the line of the coast; while its breadth, from Tarraco to the shore of Olarson1057, is 3071058 miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually expands until it touches the Farther Spain, and thereby acquires a width more than double1059.

Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in mines1060 of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold; in the Nearer Spain there is also found lapis specularis1061; in Bætica there is cinnabar. There are also quarries of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus, while still harassed by the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the Latian rights on the whole of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains divide Spain from Gaul, their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—OF THE PROVINCE OF GALLIA NARBONENSIS.

That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland sea1062 is called the province of [Gallia] Narbonensis1063, having formerly borne the name of Braccata1064. It is divided from Italy by the river Varus1065, and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul, on the north, it is separated by the mountains Cebenna1066 and Jura1067. In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province. On the coast we have the district of the Sordones1068, and more inland that of the Consuarani1069. The rivers are the Tecum and the Vernodubrum1070. The towns are Illiberis1071, the scanty remains of what was formerly a great city, and Ruscino1072, a town with Latian rights. We then come to the river Atax1073, which flows from the Pyrenees, and passes through the Rubrensian Lake1074, the town of Narbo Martius, a colony of the tenth legion, twelve miles distant from the sea, and the rivers Arauris1075 and Liria1076. The towns are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the numerous lakes1077 which skirt the sea-shore. We have Agatha1078, formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of the Volcæ Tectosages1079; and there is the spot where Rhoda1080, a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes its name of Rhodanus1081; a stream by far the most fertilizing of any in either of the Gallias. Descending from the Alps and rushing through lake Lemanus1082, it carries along with it the sluggish Arar1083, as well as the torrents of the Isara and the Druentia1084, no less rapid than itself. Its two smaller mouths are called Libica1085, one being the Spanish, and the other the Metapinian mouth; the third and largest is called the Massiliotic1086. There are some authors who state that there was formerly a town called Heraclea1087 at the mouth of the Rhodanus or Rhone.

Beyond this are the Canals1088 leading out of the Rhone, a famous work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his name; the Lake of Mastramela1089, the town of Maritima1090 of the Avatici, and, above this, the Stony Plains1091, memorable for the battles of Hercules; the district of the Anatilii1092, and more inland, that of the Desuviates1093 and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is that of the Tricorii1094, and inland, there are the Tricolli1095, the Vocontii1096, and the Segovellauni, and, after them, the Allobroges1097.

On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocæan1098 Greeks, and a federate1099 city; we then have the Promontory of Zao1100, the port of Citharista1101, and the district of the Camatullici1102; then the Suelteri1103, and above them the Verrucini1104. Again, on the coast, we find Athenopolis1105, belonging to the Massilians, Forum Julii1106 Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis and Classica, the river Argenteus1107, which flows through it, the district of the Oxubii1108 and that of the Ligauni1109; above whom are the Suetri1110, the Quariates1111 and the Adunicates1112. On the coast we have Antipolis1113, a town with Latian rights, the district of the Deciates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from Mount Cema, one of the Alps.

The colonies in the interior are Arelate Sextanorum1114, Beterræ Septimanorum1115, and Arausio1116 Secundanorum; Valentia1117 in the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna1118 in that of the Allobroges. The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquæ Sextiæ1119 in the territory of the Saluvii, Avenio1120 in that of the Cavari, Apta Julia1121 in that of the Volgientes, Alebece1122 in that of the Reii Apollinares, Alba1123 in that of the Helvi, and Augusta1124 in that of the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aeria1125, the Bormanni1126, the Comaci, Cabellio1127, Carcasum1128 in the territory of the Volcæ Tectosages, Cessero1129, Carpentoracte1130 in the territory of the Memini, the Cenicenses1131, the Cambolectri1132, surnamed the Atlantici, Forum1133 Voconi, Glanum Livi1134, the Lutevani1135, also called the Foroneronienses1136, Nemausum1137 in the territory of the Arecomici, Piscenæ1138, the Ruteni1139, the Sanagenses1140, the Tolosani1141 in the territory of the Tectosages on the confines of Aquitania, the Tasconi1142, the Tarusconienses1143, the Umbranici1144, Vasio1145 and Lucus Augusti1146, the two capitals of the federate state of the Vocontii. There are also nineteen towns of less note, as well as twenty-four belonging to the people of Nemausum. To this list1147 the Emperor Galba added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the Avantici1148 and the Bodiontici, to whom belongs the town of Dinia1149. According to Agrippa the length of the province of Gallia Narbonensis is 370 miles, and its breadth 2481150.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—OF ITALY.

Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligures1151, after whom we have Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of the Tiber are situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world, sixteen miles distant from the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volsci and of Campania, and the districts of Picenum, of Lucania, and of Bruttium, where Italy extends the farthest in a southerly direction, and projects into the [two] seas with the chain of the Alps1152, which there forms pretty nearly the shape of a crescent. Leaving Bruttium we come to the coast of [Magna] Græcia, then the Salentini, the Pediculi, the Apuli, the Peligni, the Frentani, the Marrucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the Picentes, the Galli, the Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Carni, the Iapydes, the Histri, and the Liburni.

I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of ingratitude and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly and in so cursory a manner the land which is at once the foster-child1153 and the parent of all lands; chosen by the providence of the Gods to render even heaven itself more glorious1154, to unite the scattered empires of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men’s manners, to unite the discordant and uncouth dialects of so many different nations by the powerful ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to become, in short, the mother-country of all nations of the Earth.

But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the number of celebrated places (what man living could enumerate them all?), and so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject, that I feel myself quite at a loss. The city of Rome alone, which forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous, how large a work would it require for an appropriate description! And then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself! so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature formed it she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in a single spot—how am I to do justice to it? And then the climate, with its eternal freshness and so replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather so enchanting, the fields so fertile, the hill sides so sunny, the thickets so free from every danger, the groves so cool and shady, the forests with a vegetation so varying and so luxuriant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the fruitfulness of its grain, its vines, and its olives so transcendent; its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-ending succession, its numerous rivers and springs which refresh it with their waters on every side, its seas so many in number, its havens and the bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the commerce of all the world, and as it were eagerly stretching forth into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding as it were the endeavours of mortals!

For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its men, and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and force of arms. The very Greeks themselves, a race fond in the extreme of expatiating on their own praises, have amply given judgment in its favour, when they named but a small part of it ‘Magna Græcia1155.’ But we must be content to do on this occasion as we have done in our description of the heavens; we must only touch upon some of these points, and take notice of but a few of its stars. I only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus hastening on for the purpose of giving a general description of everything that is known to exist throughout the whole earth.

I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles in shape an oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad; towards the top it inclines to the left1156, while it terminates in the form of an Amazonian buckler1157, in which the spot at the central projection is the place called Cocinthos, while it sends forth two horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays, Leucopetra on the right and Lacinium on the left. It extends in length 1020 miles, if we measure from the foot of the Alps at Prætoria Augusta, through the city of Rome and Capua to the town of Rhegium, which is situate on the shoulder of the Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it were. The distance would be much greater if measured to Lacinium, but in that case the line, being drawn obliquely, would incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable; being 410 miles between the two seas, the Lower and the Upper1158, and the rivers Varus and Arsia1159: at about the middle, and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river Aternus1160 flows into the Adriatic sea, to the mouth of the Tiber, the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from Castrum-novum on the Adriatic sea to Alsium1161 on the Tuscan; but in no place does it exceed 200 miles in breadth. The circuit of the whole, from the Varus to the Arsia, is 3059 miles1162.

As to its distance from the countries that surround it—Istria and Liburnia are, in some places1163, 100 miles from it, and Epirus and Illyricum 50; Africa is less than 200, as we are informed by M. Varro; Sardinia1164 is 120, Sicily 1^1⁄2, Corsica less than 80, and Issa1165 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts of the heavens, or, to speak with more minute exactness, between the sixth1166 hour and the first hour of the winter solstice.

We will now describe its extent and its different cities; in doing which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall follow the arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus, and adopt the division which he made of the whole of Italy into eleven districts; taking them, however, according to their order on the sea-line, as in so hurried a detail it would not be possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition with the others in its vicinity. And for the same reason, in describing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration. Nor is it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin; for, not to speak of others, the Ingaunian Ligurians have had lands granted to them as many as thirty different times.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE NINTH1167 REGION OF ITALY.

To begin then with the river Varus; we have the town of Nicæa1168, founded by the Massilians, the river Paulo1169, the Alps and the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various names1170, but more especially the Capillati1171, Cemenelio1172, a town of the state of the Vediantii, the port of Hercules Monæcus1173, and the Ligurian coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond the Alps are the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the Oxubii1174; on this side of the Alps, the Veneni1175, and the Vagienni, who are derived from the Caturiges1176, the Statielli1177, the Bimbelli1178, the Magelli, the Euburiates, the Casmonates1179, the Veleiates1180, and the peoples whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining coast. The river Rutuba1181, the town of Albium Intemelium1182, the river Merula1183, the town of Albium Ingaunum1184, the port of Vadum Sabatiorum1185, the river Porcifera1186, the town of Genua, the river Feritor1187, the Portus Delphini1188, Tigullia1189, Tegesta1190 of the Tigullii, and the river Macra1191, which is the boundary of Liguria.

Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, the chain of which extends unbroken from the Alps1192 to the Sicilian sea. On the other side of the Apennines, towards the Padus1193, the richest river of Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble towns; Libarna1194, the colony of Dertona1195, Iria1196, Barderate1197, Industria1198, Pollentia1199, Carrea surnamed Potentia1200, Foro Fulvî or Valentinum1201, Augusta1202 of the Vagienni, Alba Pompeia1203, Asta1204, and Aquæ Statiellorum1205. This is the ninth region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of Liguria extends 211 miles1206, between the rivers Varus and Macra.

CHAP. 8.—THE SEVENTH REGION OF ITALY.

Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria, a district which begins at the river Macra, and has often changed its name. At an early period the Umbri were expelled from it by the Pelasgi; and these again by the Lydians, who from a king of theirs1207 were named Tyrrheni, but afterwards, from the rites observed in their sacrifices, were called, in the Greek language1208, Tusci. The first town in Etruria is Luna1209, with a noble harbour, then the colony of Luca1210, at some distance from the sea, and nearer to it again the colony of Pisæ1211, between the rivers Auser1212 and Arnus1213, which owes its origin to Pelops and the Pisans1214, or else to the Teutani, a people of Greece. Next is Vada1215 Volaterrana, then the river Cecinna1216, and Populonium1217 formerly belonging to the Etrurians, the only town they had on this coast. Next to these is the river Prile1218, then the Umbro1219, which is navigable, and where the district of Umbria begins, the port of Telamon1220, Cosa1221 of the Volcientes, founded by the Roman people, Graviscæ1222, Castrum novum1223, Pyrgi1224, the river Cæretanus1225, and Cære1226 itself, four miles inland, called Agylla by the Pelasgi who founded it, Alsium1227, Fregenæ1228, and the river Tiber, 2841229 miles from the Macra.

In the interior we have the colonies of Falisci1230, founded by the Argives, according to the account of Cato1231, and surnamed Falisci Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniæ1232, Rusellana, the Senienses1233, and Sutrina1234. The remaining peoples are the Arretini1235 Veteres, the Arretini Fidentes, the Arretini Julienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses, surnamed Taurini1236, the Blerani1237, the Cortonenses1238, the Capenates1239, the Clusini Novi, the Clusini Veteres1240, the Florentini1241, situate on the stream of the Arnus, Fæsulæ1242, Ferentinum1243, Fescennia1244, Hortanum1245, Herbanum1246, Nepeta1247, Novem Pagi1248, the Claudian præfecture of Foroclodium1249, Pistorium1250, Perusia1251, the Suanenses, the Saturnini, formerly called the Aurinini, the Subertani1252, the Statones1253, the Tarquinienses1254, the Tuscanienses1255, the Vetulonienses1256, the Veientani1257, the Vesentini1258, the Volaterrani1259, the Volcentini1260, surnamed Etrusci, and the Volsinienses1261. In the same district the territories of Crustumerium1262 and Caletra1263 retain the names of the ancient towns.

CHAP. 9.—THE FIRST REGION OF ITALY1264; THE TIBER; ROME.

The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and previously Albula1265, flows down from nearly the central part of the chain of the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini. It is at first small, and only navigable by means of sluices, in which the water is dammed up and then discharged, in the same manner as the Timia1266 and the Glanis, which flow into it; for which purpose it is found necessary to collect the water for nine days, unless there should happen to be a fall of rain. And even then, the Tiber, by reason of its rugged and uneven channel, is really more suitable for navigation by rafts than by vessels, for any great distance. It winds along for a course of 150 miles, passing not far from Tifernum1267, Perusia, and Ocriculum1268, and dividing Etruria from the Umbri1269 and the Sabini1270, and then, at a distance of less than sixteen miles from the city, separating the territory of Veii from that of Crustuminum, and afterwards that of the Fidenates and of Latium from Vaticanum.

Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber is swollen by two and forty streams, particularly the Nar1271 and the Anio, which last is also navigable and shuts in Latium at the back; it is also increased by the numerous aqueducts and springs which are conveyed to the City. Here it becomes navigable by vessels of any burden which may come up from the Italian sea; a most tranquil dispenser of the produce of all parts of the earth, and peopled and embellished along its banks with more villas than nearly all the other rivers of the world taken together. And yet there is no river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks shut in on either side; but still, no resistance does it offer, although its waters frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part is more liable to be swollen than that which runs through the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber is rather to be looked upon1272 as pregnant with prophetic warnings to us, and in its increase to be considered more as a promoter of religion than a source of devastation.

Latium1273 has preserved its original limits, from the Tiber to Circeii1274, a distance of fifty miles: so slender at the beginning were the roots from which this our Empire sprang. Its inhabitants have been often changed, and different nations have peopled it at different times, the Aborigines, the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi, the Aurunci, the Rutuli, and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci, and the Ausones whence the name of Latium came to be extended as far as the river Liris1275.

We will begin with Ostia1276, a colony founded by a king of Rome, the town of Laurentum1277, the grove of Jupiter Indiges1278, the river Numicius1279, and Ardea1280, founded by Danaë, the mother of Perseus. Next come the former site of Aphrodisium1281, the colony of Antium1282, the river and island called Astura1283, the river Nymphæus1284, the Clostra Romana1285, and Circeii1286, formerly an island, and, if we are to believe Homer, surrounded by the open sea, though now by an extensive plain. The circumstances which we are enabled to publish on this subject for the information of the world are very remarkable. Theophrastus, the first foreigner who treated of the affairs of Rome with any degree of accuracy (for Theopompus, before whose time no Greek writer had made mention of us, only stated the fact that the city had been taken by the Gauls, and Clitarchus, the next after him, only spoke of the embassy that was sent by the Romans to Alexander)—Theophrastus, I say, following something more than mere rumour, has given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being eighty stadia, in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of Nicodorus at Athens1287, being the 440th year of our city. Whatever land therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the circumference of about ten miles, has been added to Italy since the year previously mentioned.

Another wonderful circumstance too.—Near Circeii are the Pomptine Marshes1288, formerly the site, according to Mucianus, who was thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities. Next to this comes the river Ufens1289, upon which is the town of Terracina1290, called, in the language of the Volsci, Anxur; the spot too where Amyclæ1291 stood, a town destroyed by serpents. Next is the site of the Grotto1292, Lake Fundanus1293, the port of Caieta1294, and then the town of Formiæ1295, formerly called Hormiæ, the ancient seat of the Læstrygones1296, it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood the town of Pyræ; and we then come to the colony of Minturnæ1297, which still exists, and is divided1298 by the river Liris, also called the Glanis. The town of Sinuessa1299 is the last in the portion which has been added to Latium; it is said by some that it used to be called Sinope.

At this spot begins that blessed country Campania1300, and in this vale first take their rise those hills clad with vines, the juice of whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world; the happy spot where, as the ancients used to say, father Liber and Ceres are ever striving for the mastery. Hence the fields of Setia1301 and of Cæcubum1302 extend afar, and, next to them those of Falernum1303 and of Calinum1304. As soon as we have passed these, the hills of Massica1305, of Gaurus1306, and of Surrentum rise to our view. Next, the level plains of Laborium1307 are spread out far and wide, where every care is bestowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which the most delicate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm springs1308, while the seas are distinguished beyond all others for the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish. In no country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite flavour. This territory, a battle-ground as it were for the gratification of every luxurious pleasure of man, has been held successively by the Osci, the Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, and the Campani.

On the coast we first meet with the river Savo1309, the town of Volturnum with a river1310 of the same name, the town of Liternum1311, Cumæ1312, a Chalcidian colony, Misenum1313, the port of Baiæ1314, Bauli1315, the Lucrine Lake1316, and Lake Avernus, near which there stood formerly a town1317 of the Cimmerians. We then come to Puteoli1318, formerly called the colony of Dicæarchia, then the Phlegræan1319 Plains, and the Marsh of Acherusia1320 in the vicinity of Cumæ.

Again, on the coast we have Neapolis1321, also a colony of the Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there of one of the Sirens, Herculaneum1322, Pompeii1323, from which Mount Vesuvius may be seen at no great distance, and which is watered by the river Sarnus1324; the territory of Nuceria, and, at the distance of nine miles from the sea, the town of that name1325, and then Surrentum1326, with the Promontory of Minerva1327, formerly the abode of the Sirens. The distance thence by sea to Circeii is seventy-eight miles. This region, beginning at the Tiber, is looked upon as the first of Italy according to the division of Augustus.

Inland there are the following colonies:—Capua1328, so called from its champaign country, Aquinum1329, Suessa1330, Venafrum1331, Sora1332, Teanum surnamed Sidicinum1333, Nola1334; and the towns of Abelia1335, Aricia1336, Alba Longa1337, the Acerrani1338, the Allifani1339, the Atinates1340, the Aletrinates1341, the Anagnini1342, the Atellani1343, the Affilani1344, the Arpinates1345, the Auximates1346, the Abellani1347, the Alfaterni (both those who take their names from the Latin, the Hernican and the Labicanian territory), Bovillæ1348, Calatia1349, Casinum1350, Calenum1351, Capitulum1352 of the Hernici, the Cereatini1353, surnamed Mariani, the Corani1354, descended from the Trojan Dardanus, the Cubulterini, the Castrimœnienses1355, the Cingulani1356, the Fabienses1357 on the Alban Mount, the Foropopulienses1358 of the Falernian district, the Frusinates1359, the Ferentinates1360, the Freginates1361, the old Frabaterni1362, the new Frabaterni, the Ficolenses1363, the Fregellani1364, Forum Appî1365, the Forentani1366, the Gabini1367, the Interamnates Succasini1368, also surnamed Lirinates, the Ilionenses Lavinii1369, the Norbani1370, the Nomentani1371, the Prænestini1372 (whose city was formerly called Stephané), the Privernates1373, the Setini1374, the Signini1375, the Suessulani1376, the Telesini1377, the Trebulani, surnamed Balinienses1378, the Trebani1379, the Tusculani1380, the Verulani1381, the Veliterni1382, the Ulubrenses1383, the Urbinates1384, and, last and greater than all, Rome herself, whose other name1385 the hallowed mysteries of the sacred rites forbid us to mention without being guilty of the greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried in secresy with the strictest fidelity and in respectful and salutary silence, Valerius Soranus dared to divulge it, but soon did he pay the penalty1386 of his rashness.

It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose, if I here make mention of one peculiar institution of our forefathers which bears especial reference to the inculcation of silence on religious matters. The goddess Angerona1387, to whom sacrifice is offered on the twelfth day before the calends of January [21st December], is represented in her statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed fillet.

Romulus left the city of Rome, if we are to believe those who state the very greatest number, having three1388 gates and no more. When the Vespasians were emperors1389 and censors, in the year from its building 826, the circumference of the walls which surrounded it was thirteen miles and two-fifths. Surrounding as it does the Seven Hills, the city is divided into fourteen districts, with 265 cross-roads1390 under the guardianship of the Lares. If a straight line is drawn from the mile-column1391 placed at the entrance of the Forum, to each of the gates, which are at present thirty-seven in number (taking care to count only once the twelve double gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which no longer exist), the result will be [taking them altogether], a straight line of twenty miles and 765 paces1392. But if we draw a straight line from the same mile-column to the very last of the houses, including therein the Prætorian encampment, and follow throughout the line of all the streets, the result will then be something more than seventy miles. Add to these calculations the height of the houses, and then a person may form a fair idea of this city, and will certainly be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout the whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the eastern side it is bounded by the agger of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack from the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified either with lofty walls or steep and precipitous hills1393, but so it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all bounds, have now united many other cities to it1394.

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly in the first region the following famous towns of Latium: Satricum1395, Pometia1396, Scaptia, Politorium1397, Tellene, Tifata, Cænina1398, Ficana1399, Crustumerium, Ameriola1400, Medullum1401, Corniculum1402, Saturnia1403, on the site of the present city of Rome, Antipolis1404, now Janiculum, forming part of Rome, Antemnæ1405, Camerium1406, Collatia1407, Amitinum1408, Norbe, Sulmo1409, and, with these, those Alban nations1410 who used to take part in the sacrifices1411 upon the Alban Mount, the Albani, the Æsulani1412, the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bubetani1413, the Bolani1414, the Cusuetani, the Coriolani1415, the Fidenates1416, the Foretii, the Hortenses1417, the Latinienses, the Longulani1418, the Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucumenses, the Munienses, the Numinienses, the Olliculani, the Octulani, the Pedani1419, the Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the Sicani, the Sisolenses, the Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vimitellarii, the Velienses, the Venetulani, and the Vitellenses. Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of ancient Latium have passed away without leaving any traces of their existence.

In the Campanian territory there was also the town of Stabiæ1420, until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L. Cato, when, on the day before the calends of May [30th of April], it was destroyed in the Social War by L. Sulla the legatus, and all that now stands on its site is a single farmhouse. Here also Taurania has ceased to exist, and the remains of Casilinum1421 are fast going to ruin. Besides these, we learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took Apiolæ1422, a town of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first foundations of the Capitol. From Surrentum1423 to the river Silarus1424, the former territory of Picentia1425 extends for a distance of thirty miles. This belonged to the Etruscans, and was remarkable for the temple of the Argive Juno, founded by Jason1426. In it was Picentia, a town1427 of the territory of Salernum1428.

CHAP. 10.—THE THIRD REGION OF ITALY.

At the Silarus begins the third region of Italy, consisting of the territory of Lucania and Bruttium; here too there have been no few changes of the population. These districts have been possessed by tbe Pelasgi, the Œnotrii, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, and more especially by people who emigrated from Greece1429, and, last of all, by the Leucani, a people sprung from the Samnites, who took possession under the command of Lucius. We find here the town of Pæstum1430, which received from the Greeks the name of Posidonia, the Gulf of Pæstum1431, the town of Elea, now known as Velia1432, and the Promontory of Palinurum1433, a point at which the land falls inwards and forms a bay1434, the distance across which to the pillar1435 of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum comes the river Melpes1436, then the town of Buxentum1437, called in [Magna] Græcia Pyxus, and the river Laus; there was formerly a town1438 also of the same name.

At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come to the town of Blanda1439, the river Batum1440, Parthenius, a port of the Phocians, the bay of Vibo1441, the place1442 where Clampetia formerly stood, the town of Temsa1443, called Temese by the Greeks, and Terina founded by the people of Crotona1444, with the extensive Gulf of Terina; more inland, the town of Consentia1445. Situate upon a peninsula1446 is the river Acheron1447, from which the people of Acherontia derive the name of their town; then Hippo, now called Vibo Valentia, the Port of Hercules1448, the river Metaurus1449, the town of Tauroentum1450, the Port of Orestes, and Medma1451. Next, the town of Scyllæum1452, the river Cratæis1453, the mother of Scylla it is said; then the Pillar of Rhegium, the Straits of Sicily, and the two promontories which face each other, Cænys1454 on the Italian, and Pelorus1455 on the Sicilian side, the distance between them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of twelve miles and a half, we come to Rhegium1456, after which begins Sila1457, a forest of the Apennines, and then the promontory of Leucopetra1458, at a distance of fifteen miles; after which come the Locri1459, who take their surname from the promontory of Zephyrium1460, being distant from the river Silarus 303 miles.

At this spot ends the first1461 great Gulf of Europe; the seas in which bear the following names:—That from which it takes its rise is called the Atlantic, by some the Great Atlantic, the entrance of which is, by the Greeks, called Porthmos, by us the Straits of Gades. After its entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it is called the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the Iberian or Balearic1462 Sea. Where it faces the province of Gallia Narbonensis it has the name of the Gallic, and after that, of the Ligurian, Sea. From Liguria to the island of Sicily, it is called the Tuscan Sea, the same which is called by some of the Greeks the Notian1463, by others the Tyrrhenian, while many of our people call it the Lower Sea. Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the Salentini, it is styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes however gives to the whole expanse that lies between the inlet of the ocean and the island of Sardinia, the name of the Sardoan Sea; thence to Sicily, the Tyrrhenian; thence to Crete, the Sicilian; and beyond that island, the Cretan Sea.

CHAP. 11.—SIXTY-FOUR ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ARE THE BALEARES.

The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are the two to which the Greeks have given the name of Pityussæ1464, from the pine-tree1465, which they produce. These islands now bear the name of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They are separated by a narrow strait1466 of the sea, and are forty-six1467 miles in extent. They are distant from Dianium1468 700 stadia, Dianium being by land the same distance1469 from New Carthage. At the same distance1470 from the Pityussæ, lie, in the open sea, the two Baleares, and, over against the river Sucro1471, Colubraria1472. The Baleares1473, so formidable in war with their slingers1474, have received from the Greeks the name of Gymnasiæ.

The larger island is 1001475 miles in length, and 475 in circumference. It has the following towns; Palma1476 and Pollentia1477, enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, Cinium1478 and Tucis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is no longer in existence. At thirty miles’ distance is the smaller island, 40 miles in length, and 1501479 in circumference; it contains the states of Jamnon1480, Sanisera, and Magon1481.

In the open sea, at twelve miles’ distance from the larger island, is Capraria1482 with its treacherous coast, so notorious for its numerous shipwrecks; and, opposite to the city of Palma, are the islands known as the Mænariæ1483, Tiquadra1484, and Little Hannibalis1485.

The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents, while that of Colubraria produces them; hence the latter spot is dangerous to all persons who have not brought with them some of the earth of Ebusus. The Greeks have given it the name of Ophiusa1486. Ebusus too produces no1487 rabbits to destroy the harvests of the Baleares. There are also about twenty other small islands in this sea, which is full of shoals. Off the coast of Gaul, at the mouth of the Rhodanus, there is Metina1488, and near it the island which is known as Blascon1489, with the three Stœchades, so called by their neighbours the Massilians1490, on account of the regular order in which they are placed; their respective names are Prote1491, Mese1492, also called Pomponiana, and Hypæa1493. After these come Sturium1494, Phœnice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to Antipolis1495, Lerina1496, where there is a remembrance of a town called Vergoanum having once existed.

CHAP. 12. (6.)—CORSICA.

In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica, by the Greeks called Cyrnos, extending, from north to south 150 miles, and for the most part 50 miles in breadth, its circumference being 325. It is 62 miles distant from the Vada Volaterrana1497. It contains thirty-two states, and two colonies, that of Mariana1498, founded by C. Marius, and that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On this side of it is Oglasa1499, and, at a distance of less than sixty miles from Corsica, Planaria1500, so called from its appearance, being nearly level with the sea, and consequently treacherous to mariners.

We next have Urgo1501, a larger island, and Capraria, which the Greeks have called Ægilion1502; then Igilium1503 and Dianium1504, which they have also called Artemisia, both of them opposite the coast of Cosa; also Barpana1505, Mænaria, Columbaria, and Venaria. We then come to Ilva1506 with its iron mines, an island 100 miles in circumference, 10 miles distant from Populonium, and called Æthalia by the Greeks: from it the island of Planasia1507 is distant 28 miles. After these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber, and off the coast of Antium, we come to Astura1508, then Palmaria and Sinonia, and, opposite to Formiæ, Pontiæ. In the Gulf of Puteoli are Pandateria1509, and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of Æneas, but because it has been poured forth1510 or detached from Ænaria1511, an island which received its name from having been the anchorage of the fleet of Æneas, though called by Homer Inarime1512; it is also called Pithecusa, not, as many have fancied, on account of the multitudes of apes found there, but from its extensive manufactories of pottery. Between Pausilipum1513 and Neapolis lies the island of Megaris1514, and then, at a distance of eight miles from Surrentum, Capreæ1515, famous for the castle of the emperor Tiberius: it is eleven miles in circumference.

CHAP. 13.—SARDINIA.

Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it lies upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate somewhat less1516 than eight miles from the nearest point of Corsica, and the Straits between them are even still more reduced by the small islands there situate, called the Cuniculariæ1517, as also those of Phintonis1518 and Fossæ, from which last the Straits themselves have obtained the name of Taphros1519.

(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of 188 miles, on the west 175, on the south 77, and on the north 125, being 565 miles in circumference. Its promontory of Caralis1520 is distant from Africa 200, and from Gades 1400 miles. Off the promontory of Gordis1521 it has two islands called the Isles of Hercules1522, off that of Sulcis, the island of Enosis1523, and off that of Caralis, Ficaria1524. Some writers place Beleris not far from it, as also Callodis, and the island known as Heras Lutra1525.

The most celebrated peoples of this island are the Ilienses1526, the Balari, and the Corsi; and among its eighteen towns, there are those of the Sulcitani1527, the Valentini1528, the Neapolitani1529, the Bosenses1530, the Caralitani1531, who enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and the Norenses1532. There is also one colony which is called Ad Turrim Libysonis1533. Timæus has called this island Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape to the sole of a shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of Ichnusa1534, from its resemblance to the print of a footstep. Opposite to the Gulf of Pæstum is Leucasia1535, so called from a Siren who is buried there; opposite to Velia are Pontia and Isacia, both known by one name, that of Œnotrides, a proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the Œnotrians. Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called Ithacesiæ1536, from the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.

CHAP. 14. (8.)—SICILY.

But more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from its triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 6181537 miles in circumference. In former times it was a continuation of the territory of Bruttium, but, in consequence of the overflowing of the sea, became severed from it; thus forming a strait of 15 miles in length, and a mile and a half in width in the vicinity of the Pillar of Rhegium. It was from this circumstance of the land being severed asunder that the Greeks gave the name of Rhegium1538 to the town situate on the Italian shore.

In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also Charybdis1539, a whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of this triangle, the promontory, which, as we have already1540 mentioned, is called Pelorus, faces Scylla and juts out towards Italy, while Pachynum1541 extends in the direction of Greece, Peloponnesus being at a distance from it of 440 miles, and Lilybæum1542, towards Africa, being distant 180 miles from the promontory of Mercury1543, and from that of Caralis in Sardinia 190. These promontories and sides are situate at the following distances from each other: by land it is 186 miles from Pelorus to Pachynum, from Pachynum to Lilybæum 200, and from Lilybæum to Pelorus 1701544.

In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities or states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we have the town of Messana1545, whose inhabitants are also called Mamertini and enjoy the rights of Roman citizens; the promontory of Drepanum1546, the colony of Tauromenium1547, formerly called Naxos, the river Asines1548, and Mount Ætna, wondrous for the flames which it emits by night. Its crater is twenty stadia in circumference, and from it red-hot cinders are thrown as far as Tauromenium and Catina, the noise being heard even at Maroneum1549 and the Gemellian Hills. We then come to the three rocks of the Cyclopes1550, the Port of Ulysses1551, the colony of Catina1552, and the rivers Symæthus1553 and Terias; while more inland lie the Læstrygonian Plains.

To these rivers succeed the towns of Leontinum1554 and Megaris, the river Pantagies1555, the colony of Syracuse1556, with the fountain of Arethusa1557, (the people in the Syracusan territory drink too of the fountains of Temenitis1558, Archidemia, Magæa, Cyane, and Milichie,) the port of Naustathmus1559, the river Elorus, and the promontory of Pachynum. This side1560 of Sicily begins with the river Hirminius1561, then follow the town of Camarina1562, the river Gelas1563, and the town of Agragas1564, which our people have named Agrigentum. We next come to the colony of Thermæ1565, the rivers Achates1566, Mazara, and Hypsa; the town of Selinus1567, and then the Promontory of Lilybæum, which is succeeded by Drepana1568, Mount Eryx1569, the towns of Panhormus1570, Solus1571 and Himera1572, with a river of the same name, Cephalœdis1573, Aluntium1574, Agathyrnum, the colony of Tyndaris1575, the town of Mylæ1576, and then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.

In the interior there are the following towns enjoying Latin privileges, those of the Centuripini1577, the Netini1578, and the Segestani1579; tributary towns are those of the Assorini1580, the Ætnenses1581, the Agyrini1582, the Acestæi, the Acrenses1583, the Bidini1584, the Cetarini1585, the Cacyrini1586, the Drepanitani, the Ergetini1587, the Echetlienses1588, the Erycini1589, the Entellini1590, the Enini1591, the Enguini1592, the Gelani1593, the Galatini1594, the Halesini1595, the Hennenses, the Hyblenses1596, the Herbitenses1597, the Herbessenses1598, the Herbulenses, the Halicyenses1599, the Hadranitani1600, the Imacarenses, the Ipanenses, the Ietenses1601, the Mytistratini1602, the Magellini, the Murgentini1603, the Mutycenses1604, the Menanini1605, the Naxii1606, the Noæi1607, the Petrini1608, the Paropini1609, the Phthinthienses1610, the Semellitani, the Scherini, the Selinuntii1611, the Symæthii, the Talarienses, the Tissinenses1612, the Triocalini1613, the Tyracinenses, and the Zanclæi1614, a Messenian colony on the Straits of Sicily. Towards Africa, its islands are Gaulos1615, Melita, 87 miles from Camerina, and 113 from Lilybæum, Cosyra1616, Hieronnesos1617, Cæne1618, Galata1619, Lopadusa, Æthusa, written by some Ægusa, Bucinna1620, Osteodes1621, distant from Soluntum 75 miles, and, opposite to Paropus, Ustica.

On this side of Sicily, facing the river Metaurus, at a distance of nearly 251622 miles from Italy, are the seven1623 islands called the Æolian, as also the Liparæan islands; by the Greeks they are called the Hephæstiades, and by our writers the Vulcanian1624 Isles; they are called “Æolian” because in the Trojan times Æolus was king there.

(9.) Lipara1625, with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former king who succeeded1626 Æolus, it having been previously called Melogonis or Meligunis. It is 25 miles1627 distant from Italy, and in circumference a little less. Between this island and Sicily we find another, the name of which was formerly Therasia, but now called Hiera, because it is sacred to Vulcan1628: it contains a hill which at night vomits forth flames. The third island is Strongyle1629, lying one mile1630 to the east of Lipara, over which Æolus reigned as well; it differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its flames. From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some of the inhabitants are able to predict three days beforehand what winds are about to blow; hence arose the notion that the winds are governed by Æolus. The fourth of these islands is Didyme1631, smaller than Lipara, the fifth Ericusa, the sixth Phœnicusa, left to be a pasture-ground for the cattle of the neighbouring islands, and the last and smallest Euonymos. Thus much as to the first great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 15. (10.)—MAGNA GRÆCIA, BEGINNING AT LOCRI.

At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna Græcia, whose coast falls back in three bays1632 formed by the Ausonian sea, so called from the Ausones, who were the first inhabitants of the country. According to Varro it is 86 miles in extent; but most writers have made it only 75. Along this coast there are rivers innumerable, but we shall mention those only that are worthy of remark. After leaving Locri we come to the Sagra1633, and the ruins of the town of Caulon, Mystiæ1634, Consilinum Castrum1635, Cocinthum1636, in the opinion of some, the longest headland of Italy, and then the Gulf of Scylacium1637, and Scylacium1638 itself, which was called by the Athenians, when they founded it, Scylletium. This part of Italy is nearly a peninsula, in consequence of the Gulf of Terinæum1639 running up into it on the other side; in it there is a harbour called Castra Hannibalis1640: in no part is Italy narrower than here, it being but twenty miles across. For this reason the Elder Dionysius entertained the idea of severing1641 this portion from the main-land of Italy at this spot, and adding it to Sicily. The navigable rivers in this district are the Carcines1642, the Crotalus, the Semirus, the Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior is the town of Petilia1643, and there are besides, Mount Clibanus1644, the promontory of Lacinium, in front of which lies the island of Dioscoron1645, ten miles from the main-land, and another called the Isle of Calypso, which Homer is supposed to refer to under the name of Ogygia; as also the islands of Tiris, Eranusa, and Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the promontory of Lacinium1646 is seventy miles from Caulon.

(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second Gulf of Europe, the bend of which forms an arc of great depth, and terminates at Acroceraunium, a promontory of Epirus, from which it is distant1647 seventy-five miles. We first come to the town of Croton1648, and then the river Neæthus1649, and the town of Thurii1650, situate between the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon the latter of which there was once a city1651 of the same name. In a similar manner Heraclia1652, sometimes called Siris, lies between the river of that name and the Aciris. We next come to the rivers Acalandrus and Casuentum1653, and the town of Metapontum1654, with which the third region of Italy terminates. In the interior of Bruttium, the Aprustani1655 are the only people; but in Lucania we find the Atinates, the Bantini, the Eburini1656, the Grumentini, the Potentini, the Sontini1657, the Sirini, the Tergilani, the Ursentini, and the Volcentani1658, whom the Numestrani join. Besides these, we learn from Cato1659 that Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and Theopompus informs us that there was formerly a city of the Lucani called Pandosia1660, at which Alexander, the king of Epirus, died.

CHAP. 16.—THE SECOND REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, extending a distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum, which receives its name from a town of the Laconians so called, situate at the bottom of the Gulf, to which was annexed the maritime colony which had previously settled there. Tarentum1661 is distant from the promontory of Lacinium 136 miles, and throws out the territory of Calabria opposite to it in the form of a peninsula. The Greeks called this territory Messapia, from their leader1662; before which it was called Peucetia, from Peucetius1663, the brother of Œnotrius, and was comprised in the territory of Salentinum. Between the two promontories1664 there is a distance of 100 miles. The breadth across the peninsula from Tarentum1665 to Brundusium by land is 35 miles, considerably less if measured from the port of Sasina1666. The towns inland from Tarentum are Varia1667 surnamed Apulia, Messapia, and Aletium1668; on the coast, Senum, and Callipolis1669, now known as Anxa, 75 miles from Tarentum. Thence, at a distance of 32 miles, is the Promontory of Acra Iapygia1670, at which point Italy projects the greatest distance into the sea. At a distance of 19 miles from this point is the town of Basta1671, and then Hydruntum1672, the spot at which the Ionian is separated from the Adriatic sea, and from which the distance across to Greece is the shortest. The town of the Apolloniates1673 lies opposite to it, and the breadth of the arm of the sea which runs between is not more than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was the first who entertained the notion of uniting these two points and making a passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across, and after him M. Varro1674, when commanding the fleet of Pompey in the war against the Pirates. Other cares however prevented either of them from accomplishing this design. Passing Hydruntum, we come to the deserted site of Soletum1675, then Fratuertium, the Portus Tarentinus, the haven of Miltopa, Lupia1676, Balesium1677, Cælia1678, and then Brundusium1679, fifty miles from Hydruntum. This last place is one of the most famous ports of Italy, and, although more distant, affords by far the safest passage across to Greece, the place of disembarkation being Dyrrachium, a city of Illyria; the distance across is 225 miles.

Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the Pediculi1680; nine youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became the parents of sixteen nations. The towns of the Pediculi are Rudiæ1681, Egnatia1682, and Barium1683; their rivers are the Iapyx (so called from the son of Dædalus, who was king there, and who gave it the name of Iapygia), the Pactius1684, and the Aufidus, which rises in the Hirpinian mountains and flows past Canusium1685.

At this point begins Apulia, surnamed the Daunian, from the Daunii, who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-law of Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of Salapia1686, famous for Hannibal’s amour with a courtezan, Sipontum1687, Uria, the river Cerbalus1688, forming the boundary of the Daunii, the port of Agasus1689, and the Promontory of Mount Garganus1690, distant from the Promontory of Salentinum or Iapygia 234 miles. Making the circuit of Garganus, we come to the port of Garna1691, the Lake Pantanus1692, the river Frento, the mouth of which forms a harbour, Teanum of the Apuli1693, and Larinum, Cliternia1694, and the river Tifernus, at which the district of the Frentani1695 begins. Thus there were three different nations of the Apulians, [the Daunii,] the Teani, so called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and the Lucani, who were subdued by Calchas1696, and whose country is now possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already mentioned, there are, of the Daunii, the colonies of Luceria1697 and Venusia1698, the towns of Canusium1699 and Arpi, formerly called Argos Hippium1700 and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes destroyed the nations of the Monadi and the Dardi, and the two cities of Apina and Trica1701, whose names have passed into a by-word and a proverb.

Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second region one colony of the Hirpini, Beneventum1702, so called by an exchange of a more auspicious name for its old one of Maleventum; also the Æculani1703, the Aquilonii1704, the Abellinates surnamed Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the Ligures, both those called the Corneliani and Bebiani, the Vescellani, the Æclani, the Aletrini, the Abellinates1705 surnamed Marsi, the Atrani, the Æcani1706, the Alfellani1707, the Atinates1708, the Arpani, the Borcani, the Collatini, the Corinenses, the Cannenses1709, rendered famous by the defeat of the Romans, the Dirini, the Forentani1710, the Genusini1711, the Herdonienses, the Hyrini1712, the Larinates surnamed Frentani1713, the Merinates1714 of Garganus, the Mateolani, the Netini1715, the Rubustini1716, the Silvini1717, the Strapellini1718, the Turmentini, the Vibinates1719, the Venusini, and the Ulurtini. In the interior of Calabria there are the Ægetini, the Apamestini1720, the Argentini, the Butuntinenses1721, the Deciani, the Grumbestini, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the Sturnini1722, and the Tutini: there are also the following Salentine nations; the Aletini1723, the Basterbini1724, the Neretini, the Uxentini, and the Veretini1725.

CHAP. 17. (12.)—THE FOURTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the fourth region, which includes the most valiant probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the coast, in the territory of the Frentani1726, after the river Tifernus, we find the river Trinium1727, with a good harbour at its mouth, the towns of Histonium1728, Buca1729, and Ortona, and the river Aternus1730. In the interior are the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Higher and Lower Carentini1731, and the Lanuenses; in the territory of the Marrucini, the Teatini1732; in that of the Peligni, the Corfinienses1733, the Superæquani1734, and the Sulmonenses1735; in that of the Marsi, the Anxantini1736, the Atinates1737, the Fucentes1738, the Lucenses1739, and the Marruvini1740; in that of the Albenses, the town of Alba on Lake Fucinus; in that of the Æquiculani, the Cliternini1741, and the Carseolani1742; in that of the Vestini, the Angulani1743, the Pinnenses, and the Peltuinates, adjoining to whom are the Aufinates1744 Cismontani; in that of the Samnites, who have been called Sabelli1745, and whom the Greeks have called Saunitæ, the colony of old Bovianum1746, and that of the Undecumani, the Aufidenates1747, the Esernini1748, the Fagifulani, the Ficolenses1749, the Sæpinates1750, and the Tereventinates; in that of the Sabini, the Amiternini1751, the Curenses1752, Forum Decî1753, Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the Interamnates1754, the Nursini1755, the Nomentani1756, the Reatini1757, the Trebulani, both those called Mutusci1758 and those called Suffenates1759, the Tiburtes, and the Tarinates.

In these districts, the Comini1760, the Tadiates, the Cædici, and the Alfaterni, tribes of the Æquiculi, have disappeared. From Gellianus we learn that Archippe1761, a town of the Marsi, built by Marsyas, a chieftain of the Lydians, has been swallowed up by Lake Fucinus, and Valerianus informs us that the town of the Viticini in Picenum was destroyed by the Romans. The Sabini (called, according to some writers, from their attention to religious1762 observances and the worship of the gods, Sevini) dwell on the dew-clad hills in the vicinity of the Lakes of the Velinus1763. The Nar, with its sulphureous waters, exhausts these lakes, and, descending from Mount Fiscellus1764, unites with them near the groves of Vacuna1765 and Reate, and then directs its course towards the Tiber, into which it discharges itself. Again, in another direction, the Anio1766, taking its rise in the mountain of the Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of three lakes remarkable for their picturesque beauty, and to which Sublaqueum1767 is indebted for its name. In the territory of Reate is the Lake of Cutiliæ1768, in which there is a floating island, and which, according to M. Varro, is the navel or central point of Italy. Below the Sabine territory lies that of Latium, on one side Picenum, and behind it Umbria, while the range of the Apennines flanks it on either side.

CHAP. 18. (13.)—THE FIFTH REGION OF ITALY.

The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for the denseness of its population; 360,000 Picentines took the oaths of fidelity to the Roman people. They are descended from the Sabines, who had made a vow to celebrate a holy spring1769. Their territory commenced at the river Aternus1770, where the present district and colony of Adria1771 is, at a distance of six miles from the sea. Here we find the river Vomanus, the territories of Prætutia and Palma1772, Castrum Novum1773, the river Batinus; Truentum1774, with its river of the same name, which place is the only remnant of the Liburni1775 in Italy; the river Albula1776; Tervium, at which the Prætutian district ends, and that of Picenum begins; the town of Cupra1777, Castellum Firmanorum1778, and above it the colony of Asculum1779, the most illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is the town of Novana1780. Upon the coast we have Cluana1781, Potentia, Numana, founded by the Siculi, and Ancona1782, a colony founded by the same people on the Promontory of Cumerus, forming an elbow of the coast, where it begins to bend inwards, and distant from Garganus 183 miles. In the interior are the Auximates1783, the Beregrani1784, the Cingulani, the Cuprenses surnamed Montani1785, the Falarienses1786, the Pausulani, the Planinenses, the Ricinenses, the Septempedani1787, the Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs Salvia1788.

CHAP. 19. (14.)—THE SIXTH REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes Umbria and the Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum. At Ancona begins the coast of that part of Gaul known as Gallia Togata1789. The Siculi and the Liburni possessed the greater part of this district, and more particularly the territories of Palma, of Prætutia, and of Adria. These were expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians, and these in their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought to have been the most ancient race in Italy, it being supposed that they were called “Ombrii” by the Greeks, from the fact of their having survived the rains1790 which had inundated the earth. We read that 300 of their towns were conquered by the Tusci; at the present day we find on their coast the river Æsis1791, Senogallia1792, the river Metaurus, the colonies of Fanum Fortunæ1793 and Pisaurum1794, with a river of the same name; and, in the interior, those of Hispellum1795 and Tuder.

Besides the above, there are the Amerini1796, the Attidiates1797, the Asisinates1798, the Arnates1799, the Æsinates1800, the Camertes1801, the Casuentillani, the Carsulani1802, the Dolates surnamed Salentini, the Fulginiates1803, the Foroflaminienses1804, the Forojulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the Forosempronienses1805, the Iguvini1806, the Interamnates surnamed Nartes, the Mevanates1807, the Mevanionenses, the Matilicates1808, the Narnienses1809, whose town used formerly to be called Nequinum; the Nucerini1810, both those surnamed Favonienses and those called Camellani; the Ocriculani1811, the Ostrani1812, the Pitulani, both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others called Mergentini; the Plestini1813, the Sentinates1814, the Sarsinates1815, the Spoletini1816, the Suasini1817, the Sestinates1818, the Suillates1819, the Tadinates1820, the Trebiates1821, the Tuficani1822, the Tifernates1823 surnamed Tiberini, and the others called Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urbinates, both those surnamed Metaurenses1824 and the others called Hortenses, the Vettonenses1825, the Vindinates, and the Viventani. In this district there exist no longer the Feliginates who possessed Clusiolum above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their towns of Acerræ1826, surnamed Vafriæ, and Turocelum, also called Vettiolum; as also the Solinates, the Curiates, the Fallienates, and the Apiennates. The Arienates also have disappeared with the town of Crinovolum, as well as the Usidicani, the Plangenses, the Pæsinates, and the Cælestini. Cato writes that Ameria above-mentioned was founded 964 years before the war with Perseus.

CHAP. 20. (15.)—THE EIGHTH REGION OF ITALY; THE PADUS.

The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus, and the Apennines. Upon the coast we have the river Crustumium1827, and the colony of Ariminum1828, with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa. Next comes the river Rubico1829, once the boundary of Italy, and after it the Sapis1830, the Vitis, and the Anemo, and then, Ravenna, a town of the Sabines1831, with the river Bedesis, 105 miles from Ancona; and, not far from the sea, Butrium1832, a town of the Umbri. In the interior there are the colonies of Bononia1833, formerly called Felsina, when it was the chief place of Etruria1834, Brixillum1835, Mutina1836, Parma1837, and Placentia1838. There are also the towns of Cæsena1839, Claterna, Forum Clodî1840, Forum Livî, Forum Popilî, Forum Truentinorum1841, Forum Cornelî, Forum Licinî, the Faventini1842, the Fidentini1843, the Otesini, the Padinates1844, the Regienses1845, who take their name from Lepidus, the Solonates1846, the Saltus Galliani1847, surnamed Aquinates, the Tannetani1848, the Veliates1849, who were anciently surnamed Regiates, and the Urbanates1850. In this district the Boii1851 have disappeared, of whom there were 112 tribes according to Cato; as also the Senones, who captured Rome.

(16.) The Padus1852 descends from the bosom of Mount Vesulus, one of the most elevated points of the chain of the Alps, in the territories of the Ligurian Vagienni1853, and rises at its source in a manner that well merits an inspection by the curious; after which it hides itself in a subterranean channel until it rises again in the country of the Forovibienses. It is inferior in fame to none whatever among the rivers, being known to the Greeks as the Eridanus and famous as the scene of the punishment of Phaëton1854. At the rising of the Dog-star it is swollen by the melted snows; but, though it proves more furious in its course to the adjoining fields than to the vessels that are upon it, still it takes care to carry away no portion of its banks, and when it recedes, renders them additionally fertile. Its length from its source is 300 miles, to which we must add eighty-eight for its sinuosities; and it receives from the Apennines and Alps not only several navigable rivers, but immense lakes as well, which discharge themselves into its waters, thus conveying altogether as many as thirty streams into the Adriatic Sea.

Of these the best known are the following—flowing from the range of the Apennines, the Jactus, the Tanarus1855, the Trebia which passes Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the Gabellus, the Scultenna, and the Rhenus: from the chain of the Alps, the Stura1856, the Orgus, the two Duriæ, the Sessites, the Ticinus, the Lambrus, the Addua, the Ollius, and the Mincius. There is no river known to receive a larger increase than this in so short a space; so much so indeed that it is impelled onwards by this vast body of water, and, invading the land1857, forms deep channels in its course: hence it is that, although a portion of its stream is drawn off by rivers and canals between Ravenna and Altinum, for a space of 120 miles, still, at the spot where it discharges the vast body of its waters, it is said to form seven seas.

By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna, at which place it is called the Padusa1858, having formerly borne the name of Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot forms the extensive port known as that of Vatrenus, where Claudius Cæsar1859, on his triumph over the Britons, entered the Adriatic in a vessel that deserved rather the name of a vast palace than a ship. This mouth, which was formerly called by some the Eridanian, has been by others styled the Spinetic mouth, from the city of Spina, a very powerful place which formerly stood in the vicinity, if we may form a conclusion from the amount of its treasure deposited at Delphi; it was founded by Diomedes. At this spot the river Vatrenus1860, which flows from the territory of Forum Cornelî, swells the waters of the Padus.

The next mouth to this is that of Caprasia1861, then that of Sagis, and then Volane, formerly called Olane; all of which are situate upon the Flavian Canal1862, which the Tuscans formerly made from Sagis, thus drawing the impetuous stream of the river across into the marshes of the Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas; and upon which is the noble port of Atria1863, a city of the Tuscans, from which place the sea was formerly called the Atriatic, though now the Adriatic.

We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbonaria, and the Fosses of Philistina1864, by some called Tartarus1865, all of which originate in the overflow of the waters in the Philistinian Canal, swollen by the streams of the Atesis, descending from the Tridentine Alps, and of the Togisonus1866, flowing from the territory of the Patavini. A portion of them also forms the adjoining port of Brundulum1867, in the same manner as Edron1868 is formed by the two rivers Meduacus and the Clodian Canal. With the waters of these streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference, not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat ashamed to have to borrow from the Greeks any statement in reference to Italy; Metrodorus of Scepsos, however, informs us that this river has obtained its name of Padus from the fact, that about its source there are great numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic language are called “padi.” In the tongue of the Ligurians this river is called “Bodincus,” which signifies “the bottomless.” This derivation is in some measure supported by the fact that near this river there is the town of Industria1869, of which the ancient name was Bodincomagum, and where the river begins to be of greater depth than in other parts.

CHAP. 21. (17.)—THE ELEVENTH REGION OF ITALY; ITALIA TRANSPADANA.

From the river Padus the eleventh region receives its name of Transpadana; to which, situate as it is wholly in the interior, the river, by its bounteous channel, conveys the gifts of all the seas. The towns are Vibî Forum1870 and Segusio; and, at the foot of the Alps, the colony of Augusta Taurinorum1871, at which place the Padus becomes navigable, and which was founded by the ancient race of the Ligurians, and of Augusta Prætoria1872 of the Salassi, near the two passes of the Alps, the Grecian1873 and the Penine (by the latter it is said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the Grecian, Hercules)—the town of Eporedia1874, the foundation of which by the Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books; the Gauls call tamers of horses by the name of “Eporediæ”—Vercellæ1875, the town of the Libici, derived its origin from the Salluvii, and Novaria1876, founded by the Vertacomacori, is at the present day a district of the Vocontii, and not, as Cato supposes, of the Ligurians; of whom two nations, called the Lævi and the Marici, founded Ticinum1877, not far from the Padus, as the Boii, descended from the Transalpine nations, have founded Laus Pompeia1878 and the Insubres Mediolanum1879.

From Cato we also learn that Comum, Bergomum1880, and Licinîforum1881, and some other peoples in the vicinity, originated with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as to the origin of that nation. Cornelius Alexander however informs us that they came from Greece, interpreting their name as meaning “those who live upon the mountains1882.” In this district, Parra has disappeared, a town of the Orobii, from whom, according to Cato, the people of Bergomum are descended; its site even yet shows that it was situate in a position more elevated than fruitful1883. The Caturiges have also perished, an exiled race of the Insubres, as also Spina previously mentioned; Melpum too, a place distinguished for its opulence, which, as we are informed by Cornelius Nepos, was destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the Senones, on the very day on which Camillus took Veii.

CHAP. 22. (18.)—THE TENTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the Adriatic Sea. In this district are Venetia1884, the river Silis1885, rising in the Tarvisanian1886 mountains, the town of Altinum1887, the river Liquentia rising in the mountains of Opitergium1888, and a port with the same name, the colony of Concordia1889; the rivers and harbours of Romatinum1890, the greater and less Tiliaventum1891, the Anaxum1892, into which the Varamus flows, the Alsa1893, and the Natiso with the Turrus, which flow past the colony of Aquileia1894 at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea. This is the country of the Carni1895, and adjoining to it is that of the Iapydes, the river Timavus1896, the fortress of Pucinum1897, famous for its wines, the Gulf of Tergeste1898, and the colony of that name, thirty-three miles from Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies the river Formio1899, 189 miles distant from Ravenna, the ancient boundary1900 of enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That this region takes its name from the river Ister which flows from the Danube, also called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite the mouth of the Padus, and that the sea which lies between them is rendered fresh by their waters running from opposite directions, has been erroneously asserted by many, and among them by Nepos even, who dwelt upon the banks of the Padus. For it is the fact that no river which runs from the Danube discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have been misled, I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came down some river into the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste; but what river that was is now unknown. The most careful writers say that the ship was carried across the Alps on men’s shoulders, having passed along the Ister, then along the Savus, and so from Nauportus1901, which place, lying between Æmona1902 and the Alps, from that circumstance derives its name.

CHAP. 23. (19.)—ISTRIA, ITS PEOPLE AND LOCALITY.

Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers have stated its length to be forty miles, and its circumference 125; and the same as to Liburnia which adjoins it, and the Flanatic Gulf1903, while others make it 2251904; others again make the circumference of Liburnia 180 miles. Some persons too extend Iapydia, at the back of Istria, as far as the Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles, thus making Liburnia but 150 miles. Tuditanus1905, who subdued the Istri, had this inscription on his statue which was erected there: “From Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia.”

The towns of Istria with the rights of Roman citizens are Ægida1906, Parentium, and the colony of Pola1907, now Pietas Julia, formerly founded by the Colchians, and distant from Tergeste 100 miles: after which we come to the town of Nesactium1908, and the river Arsia, now1909 the boundary of Italy. The distance across from Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In the interior of the tenth region are the colonies of Cremona, Brixia in the territory of the Cenomanni1910, Ateste1911 belonging to the Veneti, and the towns of Acelum1912, Patavium1913, Opitergium, Belunum1914, and Vicetia; with Mantua1915, the only city of the Tuscans now left beyond the Padus. Cato informs us that the Veneti are descendants of the Trojans1916, and that the Cenomanni1917 dwelt among the Volcæ in the vicinity of Massilia. There are also the towns of the Fertini1918, the Tridentini1919, and the Beruenses, belonging to the Rhæti, Verona1920, belonging to the Rhæti and the Euganei, and Julienses1921 to the Carni. We then have the following peoples, whom there is no necessity to particularize with any degree of exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the Flamonienses1922 with those surnamed Vanienses, and the others called Culici, the Forojulienses1923 surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani, the Nedinates1924, the Quarqueni1925, the Taurisani1926, the Togienses, and the Varvari. In this district there have disappeared—upon the coast—Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsatium, Atina and Cælina belonging to the Veneti, Segeste and Ocra to the Carni, and Noreia to the Taurisci. L. Piso also informs us that although the senate disapproved of his so doing, M. Claudius Marcellus1927 razed to the ground a tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.

In this region also and the eleventh there are some celebrated lakes1928, and several rivers that either take their rise in them or else are fed by their waters, in those cases in which they again emerge from them. These are the Addua1929, fed by the Lake Larius, the Ticinus by Lake Verbannus, the Mincius by Lake Benacus, the Ollius by Lake Sebinnus, and the Lambrus by Lake Eupilis—all of them flowing into the Padus.

Cælius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper Sea to the Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Timagenes shortens by twenty-two. Cornelius Nepos assigns to them a breadth of 100 miles, and T. Livius of 3000 stadia; but then in different places. For in some localities they exceed 100 miles; where they divide Germany, for instance, from Italy; while in other parts they do not reach seventy, being thus narrowed by the providential dispensation of nature as it were. The breadth of Italy, taken from the river Var at the foot of these mountains, and passing along by the Vada1930 Sabatia, the Taurini, Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola, and Arsia, is 745 miles.

CHAP. 24. (20.)—THE ALPS, AND THE ALPINE NATIONS.

Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more remarkable, between Pola and the district of Tergeste, are the Secusses, the Subocrini, the Catali, the Menocaleni, and near the Carni the people formerly called the Taurisci, but now the Norici. Adjoining to these are the Rhæti and the Vindelici, who are all divided into a multitude of states. It is supposed that the Rhæti are the descendants of the Tuscans, who were expelled by the Gauls and migrated hither under the command of their chief, whose name was Rhætus. Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we have the Euganean1931 nations enjoying Latin rights, and of whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are the Triumpilini, a people who were sold1932 with their territory; and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town. The same author also considers the Lepontii1933 and the Salassi to be of Tauriscan origin, but most other writers, giving a Greek1934 interpretation to their name, consider the Lepontii to have been those of the followers of Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their limbs being frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of opinion that the inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are descended from a portion of the Greeks of his army, and that the Euganeans, being sprung from an origin so illustrious, thence took their name1935. The head of these are the Stœni1936. The Vennonenses1937 and the Sarunetes1938, peoples of the Rhæti, dwell about the sources of the river Rhenus, while the tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi, dwell in the vicinity of the sources of the Rhodanus, in the same district of the Alps. There are also other native tribes here, who have received Latin rights, such as the Octodurenses1939, and their neighbours the Centrones1940, the Cottian1941 states, the Ligurian Vagienni, descended from the Caturiges1942, as also those called Montani1943; besides numerous nations of the Capillati1944, on the confines of the Ligurian Sea.

It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the inscription now to be seen upon the trophy1945 erected on the Alps, which is to the following effect:—“To the Emperor Cæsar—The son1946 of Cæsar now deified, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, and emperor fourteen years, in the seventeenth1947 year of his holding the tribunitial authority, the Senate and the Roman people, in remembrance that under his command and auspices all the Alpine nations which extended from the upper sea to the lower were reduced to subjection by the Roman people—The Alpine nations so subdued were: the Triumpilini, the Camuni, the Venostes1948, the Vennonenses, the Isarci, the Breuni, the Genaunes1949, the Focunates, four nations of the Vindelici, the Consuanetes, the Rucinates, the Licates1950, the Catenates, the Ambisontes, the Rugusci, the Suanetes1951, the Calucones, the Brixentes, the Lepontii, the Uberi, the Nantuates, the Seduni, the Varagri, the Salassi, the Acitavones, the Medulli, the Uceni1952, the Caturiges, the Brigiani, the Sogiontii, the Brodiontii, the Nemaloni, the Edenates1953, the Esubiani, the Veamini, the Gallitæ, the Triulatti, the Ecdini, the Vergunni, the Eguituri1954, the Nementuri, the Oratelli, the Nerusi, the Velauni, and the Suetri.”

The twelve states of the Cottiani1955 were not included in the list, as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which had been placed by the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the nations, such the cities of her peoples; to which we may add, that this is that same Italy, which, when L. Æmilius Paulus1956 and C. Attilius Regulus were Consuls, on hearing of the rising in Gaul, unaided, and without any foreign assistance whatever, without the help even of that portion which lies beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 horse and 700,000 foot. In abundance of metals of every kind Italy yields to no land whatever; but all search for them has been prohibited by an ancient decree of the Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy shall be exempted1957 from such treatment.

CHAP. 25. (21.)—LIBURNIA AND ILLYRICUM.

The nation of the Liburni adjoins the river Arsia1958, and extends as far as the river Titus. The Mentores, the Hymani1959, the Encheleæ, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus calls the Peucetiæ, formerly formed part of it; but now the whole in general are comprised under the one name of Illyricum. But few of the names of these nations are worthy of mention, or indeed very easy of pronunciation. To the jurisdiction of Scardona1960 resort the Iapydes and fourteen cities of the Liburni, of which it may not prove tedious if I mention the Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the Burnistæ, and the Olbonenses. Belonging to the same jurisdiction there are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights, the Alutæ1961, the Flanates1962, from whom the Gulf takes its name, the Lopsi, and the Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from tribute; and upon the islands, the Fertinates and the Curictæ1963.

Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesactium, Alvona1964, Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium, Argyruntum, Corinium1965, Ænona, the city of Pasinum, and the river Tedanius, at which Iapydia terminates. The islands of this Gulf, with their towns, besides those above mentioned, are Absyrtium1966, Arba1967, Crexa, Gissa, and Portunata. Again, on the mainland there is the colony of Iadera1968, distant from Pola 160 miles; then, at a distance of thirty miles, the island of Colentum1969, and of eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.

CHAP. 26. (22.)—DALMATIA.

Scardona, situate upon the river1970, at a distance of twelve miles from the sea, forms the boundary of Liburnia and the beginning of Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient country of the Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the Promontory of Diomedes1971, or, as others call it, the peninsula of Hyllis, 100 miles1972 in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a place with the rights of Roman citizens, and celebrated for its marble, Sicum, a place to which Claudius, the emperor lately deified, sent a colony of his veterans, and Salona1973, a colony, situate 112 miles from Iadera. To this place resort for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed according to their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dalmatæ, forming 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the Mazæi 269, and the Sardiates 52. In this region are Burnum1974, Andetrium1975, and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by the battles of the Roman people. To the same jurisdiction also belong the Issæi1976, the Colentini, the Separi, and the Epetini, nations inhabiting the islands. After these come the fortresses of Peguntium1977 and of Rataneum, with the colony of Narona1978, the seat of the third jurisdiction, distant from Salona eighty-two miles, and situate upon a river of the same name, at a distance of twenty miles from the sea. M. Varro states that eighty-nine states used to resort thither, but now nearly the only ones that are known are the Cerauni1979 with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with 17, the Dæsitiates with 103, the Docleatæ with 33, the Deretini with 14, the Deremistæ with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with 44, the Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with 72, the Siculotæ with 24, and the Vardæi, once the scourges of Italy, with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to these, this district was possessed by the Ozuæi, the Partheni, the Hemasini, the Arthitæ, and the Armistæ. The colony of Epidaurum1980 is distant from the river Naron 100 miles. After Epidaurum come the following towns, with the rights of Roman citizens:—Rhizinium1981, Acruvium1982, Butua, Olcinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been founded by the Colchians; the river Drilo1983, and, upon it, Scodra1984, a town with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a distance of eighteen miles from the sea; besides in former times many Greek towns and once powerful states, of which all remembrance is fast fading away. For in this region there were formerly the Labeatæ, the Enderini1985, the Sasæi, the Grabæi1986, properly called Illyrii, the Taulantii1987, and the Pyræi. The Promontory of Nymphæum on the sea-coast still retains its name1988; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.

(23.) At Lissum begins the province of Macedonia1989, the nations of the Parthini1990, and behind them the Dassaretæ1991. The mountains of Candavia1992 are seventy-eight miles from Dyrrhachium. On the coast lies Denda, a town with the rights of Roman citizens, the colony of Epidamnum1993, which, on account of its inauspicious name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium, the river Aöus1994, by some called Æas, and Apollonia1995, formerly a colony of the Corinthians, at a distance of four miles from the sea, in the vicinity of which the celebrated Nymphæum1996 is inhabited by the barbarous Amantes1997 and Buliones. Upon the coast too is the town of Oricum1998, founded by the Colchians. At this spot begins Epirus, with the Acroceraunian1999 mountains, by which we have previously mentioned2000 this Gulf of Europe as bounded. Oricum is distant from the Promontory of Salentinum in Italy eighty2001 miles.

CHAP. 27. (24.)—THE NORICI.

In the rear of the Carni and the Iapydes, along the course of the great river Ister2002, the Rhæti touch upon the Norici2003: their towns are Virunum2004, Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum2005, Vianiomina2006, Claudia2007, and Flavium Solvense2008. Adjoining to the Norici is Lake Peiso2009, and the deserts of the Boii2010; they are however now inhabited by the people of Sabaria2011, a colony of the now deified emperor Claudius, and the town of Scarabantia Julia2012.

CHAP. 28. (25.)—PANNONIA.

Next to them comes acorn-bearing Pannonia2013, along which the chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs through the middle of Illyricum from north to south, forms a gentle slope on the right hand and the left. The portion which looks towards the Adriatic Sea is called Dalmatia and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia stretches away towards the north, and has the Danube for its extreme boundary. In it are the colonies of Æmona2014 and Siscia. The following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for commerce, flow into the Danube; the Draus2015, which rushes from Noricum with great impetuosity, and the Savus2016, which flows with a more gentle current from the Carnic Alps, there being a space between them of 120 miles. The Draus runs through the Serretes, the Serrapilli2017, the Iasi, and the Andizetes; the Savus through the Colapiani2018 and the Breuci; these are the principal peoples. Besides them there are the Arivates, the Azali, the Amantini, the Belgites, the Catari, the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the Hercuniates2019, the Latovici, the Oseriates, the Varciani, and, in front of Mount Claudius, the Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In the Savus there is the island of Metubarris2020, the greatest of all the islands formed by rivers. Besides the above, there are these other rivers worthy of mention:—the Colapis2021, which flows into the Savus near Siscia, where, dividing its channel, it forms the island which is called Segestica2022; and the river Bacuntius2023, which flows into the Savus at the town of Sirmium, where we find the state of the Sirmienses and the Amantini. Forty-five miles thence is Taurunum2024, where the Savus flows into the Danube; above which spot the Valdanus2025 and the Urpanus, themselves far from ignoble rivers, join that stream.

CHAP. 29. (26.)—MŒSIA.

Joining up to Pannonia is the province called Mœsia2026, which runs, with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine. It commences at the confluence2027 previously mentioned. In it are the Dardani, the Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the Mœsi, the Thracians, and the Scythians who border on the Euxine. The more famous among its rivers are the Margis2028, which rises in the territory of the Dardani, the Pingus, the Timachus, the Œscus which rises in Mount Rhodope, and, rising in Mount Hæmus, the Utus2029, the Asamus, and the Ieterus.

The breadth of Illyricum2030 at its widest part is 325 miles, and its length from the river Arsia to the river Drinius 530; from the Drinius to the Promontory of Acroceraunia Agrippa states to be 175 miles, and he says that the entire circuit of the Italian and Illyrian Gulf is 1700 miles. In this Gulf, according to the limits which we have drawn, are two seas, the Ionian2031 in the first part, and the Adriatic, which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.

CHAP. 30.—ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA AND THE ADRIATIC.

In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of notice beyond those which we have already mentioned, and only a few in the Ionian; those, for instance, upon the Calabrian coast, opposite Brundusium, by the projection of which a harbour is formed; and, over against the Apulian coast, Diomedia2032, remarkable for the monument of Diomedes, and another island called by the same name, but by some Teutria.

The coast of Illyricum is clustered with more than 1000 islands, the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous creeks and æstuaries running with their narrow channels between portions of the land. The more famous are those before the mouths of the Timavus, with warm springs2033 that rise with the tides of the sea, the island of Cissa near the territory of the Istri, and the Pullaria2034 and Absyrtides2035, so called by the Greeks from the circumstance of Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some islands near them have been called the Electrides2036, upon which amber, which they call “electrum,” was said to be found; a most assured instance however of that untruthfulness2037 which is generally ascribed to the Greeks, seeing that it has never yet been ascertained which of the islands were meant by them under that name. Opposite to the Iader is Lissa, and other islands whose names have been already mentioned2038. Opposite to the Liburni are some islands called the Crateæ, and no smaller number styled Liburnicæ and Celadussæ2039. Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and Brattia2040, famous for its goats, Issa with the rights of Roman citizens, and Pharia with a town. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Issa is Corcyra2041, surnamed Melæna, with a town founded by the Cnidians; between which and Illyricum is Melite2042, from which, as we learn from Callimachus, a certain kind of little dogs were called Melitæi; fifteen miles from it we find the seven Elaphites2043. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance of twelve miles from Oricum, is Sasonis2044, notorious from having been a harbour of pirates.

Summary.—The towns and nations mentioned are in number * * * *2045. The rivers of note are in number * * * *. The mountains of note are in number * * * *. The islands are in number * * * *. The towns or nations which have disappeared are in number * * * *. The facts, statements, and observations are in number 326.

Roman Authors quoted.—Turannius Gracilis2046, Cornelius Nepos2047, T. Livius2048, Cato the Censor2049, M. Agrippa2050, M. Varro2051, the Emperor Augustus2052 now deified, Varro Atacinus2053, Antias2054, Hyginus2055, L. Vetus2056, Pomponius Mela2057, Curio2058 the Elder, Cælius2059, Arruntius2060, Sebosus2061, Licinius Mucianus2062, Fabricius Tuscus2063, L. Ateius2064, Capito2065, Verrius Flaccus2066, L. Piso2067, Gellianus2068, and Valerianus2069.

Foreign Authors quoted.—Artemidorus2070, Alexander Polyhistor2071, Thucydides2072, Theophrastus2073, Isidorus2074, Theopompus2075, Metrodorus of Scepsis2076, Callicrates2077, Xenophon of Lampsacus2078, Diodorus of Syracuse2079, Nymphodorus2080, Calliphanes2081, and Timagenes2082.

BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia2083, and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other sea2084, the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon it.

Epirus2085, generally so called, begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom Chaonia2086 receives its name, then the Thesproti2087, and then the Antigonenses2088. We then come to the place where Aornos2089 stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the Cestrini2090, the Perrhæbi2091, in whose country Mount Pindus is situate, the Cassiopæi2092, the Dryopes2093, the Sellæ2094, the Hellopes2095, the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount Tomarus2096, so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously2097 mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra2098, situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal Waters2099; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria2100, the Thyamis2101, a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum2102, and the Ambracian Gulf2103, so famed in history; which, with an inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows into it2104 after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the Arachthus2105, rivers of the Molossi; the city of Anactoria2106, and the place where Pandosia2107 stood.

CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.

The towns of Acarnania2108, the ancient name of which was Curetis, are Heraclia2109, Echinus2110, and, on the coast, Actium, a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis2111. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of Leucate2112, and then the Gulf and the peninsula of Leucadia2113, which last was formerly called Neritis2114. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos2115, and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly called Neritus2116. We next come to Alyzia2117, Stratos2118, and Argos2119, surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians: the river Acheloüs2120 flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of Artemita2121 to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream.

CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.

The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes2122, the Tymphæi2123, the Ephyri2124, the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi2125, the Dolopes2126, the Maraces, and the Atraces2127, in whose territory rises the river Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon2128 is a city of Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near the banks of the river Evenus2129. We then come to Macynia2130, and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis2131 and Taphiassus. On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium2132, off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less2133 than one mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called Rhion2134. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are Naupactus2135 and Pylene2136; and, more inland, Pleuron and Halicyrna2137. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, Crania2138 in Ambracia, Aracynthus2139 in Acarnania, and Acanthon2140, Panætolium2141, and Macynium2142, in Ætolia.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.

Next to Ætolia are the Locri2143, surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe2144, the port2145 of Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa2146. In the interior are the towns of Argyna, Eupalia2147, Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha2148, and the port of Chalæon2149, seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of Delphi2150, at the foot of Mount Parnassus2151, and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of Castalia2152, and the river Cephisus2153 which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of Lilæa2154. Besides these, there is the town of Crissa2155 and that of Anticyra2156, with the Bulenses2157; as also Naulochum2158, Pyrrha, Amphissa2159, exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, Tritea2160, Ambrysus2161, and Drymæa2162, which district has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ2163 and Thebes2164, surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon2165. The third town of Bœotia on this sea is that of Pagæ2166, from which point the Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia2167 and Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides2168, and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas2169 only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are known as the Corinthian2170 and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of Lecheæ2171, on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King Demetrius2172, Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius2173, and Domitius Nero2174, have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen by the result2175 in every one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name of Ephyre2176, situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,” and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony of Patræ2177 is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously2178 stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.

The province called Achaia2179 begins at the Isthmus; from the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos2180. The first place there is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which is Olyros2181, a fortress of the people of Pellene2182; then the former towns of Helice and Bura2183, and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, Sicyon2184 namely, Ægira2185, Ægium, and Erineos2186. In the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ2187; then come the port of Panormus2188, and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles; and then the place where Pheræ2189 stood. Of the nine mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of Olenum2190, the colony of Dyme2191, the places where Buprasium2192 and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of Araxus2193, the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five miles’ distance from Cyllene2194. There is also the fortress of Phlius2195; the district around which was called by Homer Aræthyrea2196, and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei, with the city of Elis2197 in the interior, and, at a distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoning2198. Here too once stood the town of Pisa2199, the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promontory of Ichthys2200. The river Alpheus is navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon2201 and Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of Platanodes2202. All these localities lie to the west.

CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.

Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of Cyparissa2203 on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles in length. Then, the towns of Pylos2204 and Methone2205, the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas2206, the Asinæan Gulf, which takes its name from the town of Asine2207, and the Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of Tænarum2208. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus2209 also. In the interior are Messene2210, Ithome, Œchalia, Arene2211, Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion2212, and Zancle2213, all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being thirty.

CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.

At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns are, Tænarum2214, Amyclæ2215, Pheræ2216, and Leuctra2217; and, in the interior, Sparta2218, Theramne2219, and the spots where Cardamyle2220, Pitane2221, and Anthea formerly stood; the former site of Thyrea2222, and Gerania2223. Here is also Mount Taygetus2224, the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes2225, the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum2226, so called from the town of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of Malea2227.

CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.

The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum2228, is called the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns upon it are, Bœa2229, Epidaurus2230, surnamed Limera, Zarax2231, and the port of Cyphanta2232. The rivers are the Inachus2233 and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed Hippium2234, situate beyond the place called Lerna2235, and at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is Mycenæ2236, and the place where, it is said, Tiryns2237 stood; the site, too, of Mantinea2238. The mountains are, Artemius, Apesantus2239, Asterion2240, Parparus, and some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of Niobe2241, Amymone, and Psamathe.

From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We find here the towns of Hermione2242, Trœzen2243, Coryphasium2244, and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,” sometimes “Dipsian”2245 Argos. Then comes the port of Schœnites2246, and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaks2247, from which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of Æsculapius2248, the Promontory of Spiræum2249, the port of Anthedus2250, Bucephalus2251, and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of Neptune2252, famous for the games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.; which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast of Attica.

CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote from the sea on every side, was originally called Drymodes2253, and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis2254, Mantinea2255, Stymphalus2256, Tegea2257, Antigonea2258, Orchomenus2259, Pheneum2260, Palantium2261 (from which the Palatium2262 at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis2263, Gortyna2264, Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia2265, Thelpusa2266, Melænæ2267, Heræa2268, Pylæ2269, Pallene, Agræ, Epium, Cynæthæ2270, Lepreon of Arcadia2271, Parthenium2272, Alea, Methydrium2273, Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium2274, and Cleonæ2275; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea, commonly known as Bembinadia2276.

The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë2277, with a town of the same name, Cyllene2278, Lycæus2279, upon which is the temple of Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus2280, Artemisius2281, Parthenius2282, Lampeus2283, and Nonacris2284, besides eight others of no note. The rivers are the Ladon2285, which rises in the marshes of Pheneus2286, and the Erymanthus2287, which springs from a mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the Aliphiræi2288, the Abeatæ2289, the Pyrgenses2290, the Paroreatæ2291, the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei2292, the Thriasii2293, and the Tritienses2294. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the whole of Achaia2295. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the town of Ægium2296 on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already mentioned2297. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently called Acte2298. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the colony of Megara2299, lying on the opposite side to Pagæ2300.

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well as the people of Ægosthena2301, belong to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos2302, the towns of Sidus2303 and Cremmyon2304, the Scironian Rocks2305, six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis2306. Œnoë2307 and Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and Phalerum2308 are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall2309 five miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needs2310 not a word more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia2311, Larine, Callirrhoë Enneacrunos2312, and the mountains of Brilessus2313, Ægialeus, Icarius, Hymettus2314, Lycabettus2315, and the place where Ilissus2316 stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus is the Promontory of Sunium2317. There is also the Promontory of Thoricos2318; Potamos2319, Steria2320, and Brauron2321, once towns, the borough of Rhamnus2322, the place where Marathon2323 stood, the Thriasian2324 plain, the town of Melite2325, and Oropus2326 upon the confines of Bœotia.

CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.

In this country are Anthedon2327, Onchestus2328, the free town of Thespiæ2329, Lebadea2330, and then Thebes2331, surnamed Bœotian2332, which does not yield the palm to Athens even in celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also belong the forest of Cithæron2333, and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene2334, Aganippe, and Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are Eleutheræ2335, Haliartus2336, Platææ2337, Pheræ, Aspledon2338, Hyle2339, Thisbe2340, Erythræ2341, Glissas2342, and Copæ2343; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa2344; as also Medeon, Phlygone, Acræphia2345, Coronea2346, and Chæronea2347. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea2348, Heleon, Scolos, Schœnos2349, Peteon2350, Hyriæ2351, Mycalesos2352, Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra2353, the people of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus2354, a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa, Aulis2355, so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii2356, formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are Opus2357; from which the Opuntian Gulf2358 takes its name, and Cynos. Daphnus2359 is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea2360, and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated2361, Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, Cnemisæ2362 and Hyampolisæ2363. Again, upon the coast of the Locrians, are Larymna2364, and Thronium2365, near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion, Alope2366, and Scarphia2367; and then the gulf which receives the name of the Maliac2368 from the people who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara2369.

CHAP. 13.—DORIS.

Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios2370, Erineon2371, Boion2372, Pindus, and Cytinum2373. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.

CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.

Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born Hellen2374, from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus2375, at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass of Thermopylæ2376, Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of Trachin2377. Here too is Mount Callidromus2378, and the celebrated towns of Hellas2379, Halos2380, Lamia2381, Phthia2382, and Arne2383.

CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan2384, and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax2385, and Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ2386, at the back of which is Pieria2387, extending to Macedonia, Larisa2388, Gomphi2389, Thebes2390 of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa2391, which was afterwards called Demetrias2392, the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar name2393, Crannon2394, and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius2395, Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most famous are Cercetii, Olympus2396, Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion2397 towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the Apidanus2398, the Phœnix2399, the Enipeus2400, the Onochonus2401, and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis2402. The river Peneus2403 too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a jugerum2404 and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says2405; and then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams.

CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra2406. Its towns are Iolcos2407, Hormenium, Pyrrha2408, Methone2409, and Olizon2410. The Promontory of Sepias2411 is here situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea2412 and Spalathra2413, the Promontory of Æantium2414, the towns of Melibœa2415, Rhizus, and Erymnæ2416; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of Homolium2417, Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna2418, Thaumacie2419, Gyrton2420, Crannon2421, Acharne2422, Dotion2423, Melitæa, Phylace2424, and Potniæ2425. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287.

CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two kings2426 and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known by the name of Emathia2427. Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the Dardani2428. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi2429. Its towns are Ægiæ2430, at which place its kings were usually buried, Beræa2431, and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that name, Æginium2432. Upon the coast are Heraclea2433, the river Apilas2434, the towns of Pydna2435 and Aloros2436, and the river Haliacmon2437. In the interior are the Aloritæ2438, the Vallæi2439, the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ2440, the Tyrissæi, the colony of Pella2441, and Stobi2442, a town with the rights of Roman citizens. Next comes Antigonea2443, Europus2444 upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, Ichnæ2445, and the river Axius; along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres2446, and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the nations of Pæonia2447, the Paroræi2448, the Eordenses2449, the Almopii2450, the Pelagones, and the Mygdones2451.

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the Arethusii2452, the Antiochienses2453, the Idomenenses2454, the Doberi2455, the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the Morylli, the Garesci2456, the Lyncestæ2457, the Othryonei2458, and the Amantini2459 and Orestæ2460, both of them free peoples; the colonies of Bullis2461 and Dium2462, the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi, a free people, Heraclea Sintica2463, the Tymphæi2464, and the Toronæi.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of Chalastra2465, and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica2466, a free city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles2467,) and then Thermæ2468. Upon the Gulf2469 of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna2470, Derra, Scione2471, the Promontory of Canastræum2472, and the towns of Pallene2473 and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of Nyssos2474, Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly Potidæa2475 on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus2476, Olophyxus2477, and the Gulf of Mecyberna2478; the towns of Miscella, Ampelos2479, Torone2480, Singos2481, and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount Athos2482 from the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-five2483 miles; its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the town of Acroathon2484: the present towns are Uranopolis2485, Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ2486, and Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of Macrobii2487. The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come Acanthus2488, Stagira2489, Sithone2490, Heraclea2491, and the country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea, Apollonia2492 and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have Posidium2493, and the bay with the town of Cermorus, Amphipolis2494, a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then come to the river Strymon2495 which takes its rise in Mount Hæmus2496 and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which once extended2497 her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father Liber2498 and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-two2499 cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of two2500 individuals!

CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies2501, and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ above2502 mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi2503, with various names, as far as the river Mestus2504, which winds around the foot of Mount Pangæum2505, passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi2506, the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the Odrysæ2507 gives birth to the Hebrus2508, its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the Edoni2509. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called Poneropolis2510, afterwards Philippopolis2511 from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, Trimontium2512. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel six2513 miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi2514, the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi Sarmatæ2515, also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet Orpheus2516, dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the Propontis2517 on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia2518, Œsyma2519, Neapolis2520 and Datos. In the interior is the colony of Philippi2521, distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also Scotussa2522, the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Mestus2523, Mount Pangæus, Heraclea2524, Olynthos2525, Abdera2526, a free city, the people of the Bistones2527 and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horses2528 of Diomedes. At the present day we find here Dicæa2529, Ismaron2530, the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and Maronea2531, formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount Serrium2532 and Zone2533, and then the place called Doriscus2534, capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the Hebrus2535, the Port of Stentor, and the free town of Ænos2536, with the tomb there of Polydorus2537, the region formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos2538, or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas2539 receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela2540, Bisanthe2541, and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus2542, which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast2543 of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis2544, namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi2545, and Callatis2546, formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis2547, formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania2548, where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus2549, a city of the Milesians, the river Panysus2550, and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum2551. At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria2552, and Anchialum2553, where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia2554 occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias2555, Halmydessos2556, Develton2557, with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus2558. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes2559, and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras2560, upon which is the town of Byzantium2561, a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras2562, or Athyras, and the towns of Selymbria2563 and Perinthus2564, which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya2565, a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus2566; the district called Cænica2567, and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river Erginus2568; here formerly stood the town of Ganos2569; and Lysimachia2570 in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus2571, similar in name to the other2572, and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia2573 on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape2574 which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with Lysimachia2575, which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa2576, on the banks of the river Ægos2577; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two2578 miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have already2579 stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis2580 and Sestos2581 in Europe, and Lampsacus2582 and Abydos2583 in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia2584, lying opposite to Sigeum2585; upon one side of it stands the Cynossema2586 (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval station2587 of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine2588 of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos2589, Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already2590 mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of Æx2591 from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan2592, being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus2593 in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of Corcyra2594, with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called Cassiope2595, and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos2596, lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxos2597 in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not far2598 from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum2599, a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna2600 we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called Teleboïdes2601, as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and Prinoessa2602; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the Echinades2603, consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia2604 and Zacynthus2605, both of them free, Ithaca2606, Dulichium2607, Same2608, and Crocyle2609. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melæna2610, lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others2611. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of Elatus2612. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus2613; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus2614, a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris2615 and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two Strophades2616, by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies Letoia2617, before Pylos the three Sphagiæ2618, and before Messene the Œnussæ2619, as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides2620, and in that of Laconia Theganusa2621, Cothon, and Cythera2622, with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of Malea2623, thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa2624, Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione2625, Tiparenus, Aperopia2626, Colonis2627, and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria2628, at a distance of half a mile, Plateis2629, Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos2630, and Pityonesos2631, six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina2632, a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum2633, lie Eleusa2634, Adendros2635, the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila2636 lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

CHAP. 20.—CRETE.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides2637; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of Macaron2638 from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium2639, facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criumetopon2640, in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa2641, Cisamon2642, Pergamum, Cydonia2643, Minoium2644, Apteron2645, Pantomatrium, Amphimalla2646, Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, Matium2647, Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna2648, Lebena2649, and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna2650, Phæstum, Cnossus2651, Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium2652, Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ2653, Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus2654, Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus2655. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus2656, the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos2657, at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called Mylæ2658. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce2659, and the two islands known as Budroæ2660. Opposite to Matium lies Dia2661; opposite to the promontory of Itanum2662, Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos2663. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the Lichades2664, consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis2665; before it, Psyttalia2666; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene2667. At the same distance from this last is Ceos2668, which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and Carthæa2669; Coresus2670 and Pœëessa2671 have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women’s dresses.

CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.

Eubœa2672 itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a bridge2673. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of Geræstus2674, which looks towards Attica, and that of Caphareus2675, which faces the Hellespont; on the north it has that of Cenæum2676. In no part does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 miles2677. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, Cerinthos2678, Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos2679, Ocha, and Œchalia; at present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis2680 (opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus2681, Eretria2682, Carystus2683, Oritanum, and Artemisium2684. Here are also the Fountain of Arethusa2685, the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris2686, as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called Abantias2687, and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis.

CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.

Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan2688 Sea, are numerous other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos and the Ægila2689. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstance2690 they derive their name. The first of them is the one called Andros2691 with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos2692, with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some writers call it Ophiussa2693. The other islands are, Myconos2694, with the mountain of Dimastus2695, distant from Delos fifteen2696 miles; Siphnus2697, formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles in circumference; Seriphus2698, twelve miles in circuit; Prepesinthus2699; Cythnos2700; and then, by far the most famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, Delos2701 itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. Varro2702; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearance2703 on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia2704, Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount Cynthus2705 here raises his head.

Next to this island is Rhene2706, which Anticlides calls by the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros2707, which the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but Mucianus 160; Oliaros2708; and Paros2709, with a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its marble2710; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos2711, with a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was formerly called Strongyle2712, then Dia, and then Dionysias2713, in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards; others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis2714. It is seventy-five2715 miles in circumference—half as large again as Paros.

CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the rest that follow are the Sporades2716. These are, Helene2717, Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros2718, which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in length2719, with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and Ichthyoëssa2720. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 112^1⁄2 miles.

After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island of Scyros2721, and that of Ios2722, eighteen miles distant from Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara2723, with a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos2724, noted for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa2725, Patmos2726, thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiæ2727, Lebinthus2728, Leros2729, Cinara2730; Sicinus2731, formerly called Œnoë2732; Hieracia, also called Onus; Casos2733, likewise called Astrabe; Cimolus2734, or Echinussa; and Melos2735, with a city of that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circular2736 in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called Amorgos2737, Polyægos2738, Phyle, and Thera2739, known as Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later period, the island of Therasia2740 was torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, Ascania2741, Anaphe2742, Hippuris, and Astypalæa2743, a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia2744, Calymna2745, in which is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is Carpathum2746, which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to Rhodes2747, in the direction of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirty2748. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called Petaliæ2749; and, at its outlet, Atalante2750. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.

The Gulf of Pagasa2751 has in front of it Euthia2752, Cicynethus2753, Scyros, previously mentioned2754, and the very furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and Scandila2755; the Gulf of Thermæ2756, Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands; Peparethus2757, formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus2758, at a distance of fifteen, and Imbros2759, with a city of the same name, at a distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two2760 miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos2761, being distant from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina2762; into the market-place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice. The island of Thasos2763, constituting a free state, is six miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria. Abdera2764, on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-two2765. The island of Samothrace2766, a free state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-two2767 miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eight2768 from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce2769, ten miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos2770, and beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus2771, not far from Cœlos, a port2772 of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and Polendos2773.

CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends at the entrance of the Mæotis2774. But in order that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far as Priapus2775, a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the Propontis2776, the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus2777, being only half-a-mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly Axenus2778. As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bow2779. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian2780 Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus2781, a town of the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum2782, by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole of which added together, makes 13372783 miles. Agrippa makes the distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence to Panticapæum, 635.

Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the Riphæan Mountains2784, and forms the extreme boundary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as far as Istropolis, have been already2785 mentioned in our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount Abnoba2786, opposite to Rauricum2787, a town of Gaul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six2788 vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of Peuce2789, close to which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake2790 takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma2791; the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma2792; the fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon2793, with its island called Conopon-Diabasis2794; after which come the Boreon-Stoma2795 and the Psilon-Stoma2796. These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be fresh.

CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot the Getæ2797, by the Romans called Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii2798 or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ2799; and then, after them, the Alani2800 and the Rhoxalani. The higher2801 parts again, between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest2802, as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum2803, and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges2804, who inhabit the level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river Pathissus2805, inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving the river Marus2806, whether it is that or the Duria2807, that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of Vannius2808, the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite sides2809. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the deserts2810 of Sarmatia. The name “Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly all the rest of the world.

CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos2811, Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river Tyra2812, which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island2813 situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their name from the river Axiaces2814, and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the river Rhodes2815, the Sagarian Gulf2816, and the port of Ordesos2817. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river Borysthenes2818, with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a town2819 in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of Achilles2820, famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos2821: the length of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the Siraci2822 occupy all this tract of country.

At this spot begins a well-wooded district2823, which has given to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ2824. Beyond them is the river Panticapes2825, which separates the Nomades2826 and the Georgi, and after it the Acesinus2827. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes below Olbia2828. Others, who are more correct, say that it is the Hypanis2829: so great is the mistake made by those who have placed it2830 in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf2831, until there is only an intervening space2832 of five miles between it and the Lake Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land, and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we find the river Pacyris2833, the towns of Navarum and Carcine2834, and behind it Lake Buges2835, which discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocks2836 from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers Buges2837, Gerrus2838, and Hypacaris2839, which approach it from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica2840 begins, which was once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Characeni2841, the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian Satarchæ2842. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Taphræ2843, situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea Chersonesus2844, to which its freedom has been granted2845 by the Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of Parthenium2846, the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the Symboli2847, and the Promontory of Criumetopon2848, opposite to Carambis2849, a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number of harbours and lakes of the Tauri2850. The town of Theodosia2851 is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia. Panticapæum2852, a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the Strait, as we have previously2853 stated, two miles and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus2854 is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium2855, Myrmecium, and, in the interior2856 of it, the island of Alopece. From the spot called Taphræ2857, at the extremity of the isthmus, to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the Auchetæ2858, in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the Geloni2859, the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the Agathyrsi2860 with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ and the Essedones2861. Along the coast, as far as the river Tanais2862, are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come to the Riphæan2863 mountains, and the region known by the name of Pterophoros2864, because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the Hyperborei2865, a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many marvellous stories2866. At this spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinox2867 to autumn. On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the Attacori2868, who greatly resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhere2869 but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authors2870 are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful.

CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we have already made mention of them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanæan2871 islands, by some called the Symplegades2872, and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single island2873 of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline2874 Apollo. Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already mentioned2875. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea2876 previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and Macaron2877. Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all the interior2878 seas take their rise in this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.

We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions2879 of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at Gades. In this direction a great number of islands2880 are said to exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia2881, and said to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the Septentrional2882 or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the “Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cronian2883 Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’ sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called Baltia2884, which by Pytheas is called Basilia2885. Some islands2886 called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the Ingævones2887, the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is an immense mountain called Sevo2888, not less than those of the Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the ‘Codanian,’ is filled with islands; the most famous among which is Scandinavia2889, of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it is generally supposed that the island of Eningia2890 is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the Venedi2891, the Sciri, and the Hirri2892, and that there is a gulf there known by the name of Cylipenus2893, at the mouth of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris2894. Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have been made known by the Roman arms2895: the most famous of which is Burcana2896, called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance borne2897 by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those also called Glæsaria2898 by our soldiers, from their amber; but by the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania.

CHAP. 28.—GERMANY.

The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis2899, a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 6862900 miles, and the breadth 1482901. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa.

There are five German races; the Vandili2902, parts of whom are the Burgundiones2903, the Varini2904, the Carini2905, and the Gutones2906: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the Cimbri2907, the Teutoni2908, and the tribes of the Chauci2909. The Istævones2910, who join up to the Rhine, and to whom the Cimbri2911 belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi2912, the Hermunduri2913, the Chatti2914, and the Cherusci2915: the fifth race is that of the Peucini2916, who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the Guttalus2917, the Vistillus or Vistula, the Albis2918, the Visurgis2919, the Amisius2920, the Rhine, and the Mosa2921. In the interior is the long extent of the Hercynian2922 range, which in grandeur is inferior to none.

CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.

In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous island2923 of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other islands of the Frisii2924, the Chauci, the Frisiabones2925, the Sturii2926, and the Marsacii, which lie between Helium2927 and Flevum2928. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own name.

CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA.

Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated in the records of Greece2929 and of our own country. It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was Albion2930; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of “Britanniæ.” This island is distant from Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the Morini2931, at the spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the Caledonian2932 forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across being the shortest from the territory of the Silures2933, a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there are the Orcades2934, forty in number, and situate within a short distance of each other, the seven islands called Acmodæ2935, the Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the islands of Mona2936, Monapia2937, Ricina2938, Vectis2939, Limnus2940, and Andros2941. Below it are the islands called Samnis and Axantos2942, and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those known as the Glæsariæ2943, but which the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing electrum or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is Thule2944, in which, as we have previously stated2945, there is no night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island called Mictis2946 is within six days’ sail of Britannia, in which white lead2947 is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in boats of osier2948, covered with sewed hides. There are writers also who make mention of some other islands, Scandia2949 namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for Thule. At one day’s sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some is called the Cronian Sea.

CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA.

The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of Comata2950, is divided into three races of people, which are more especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the Sequana2951 it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana to the Garumna2952 it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis2953; and from the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian Gaul, formerly called Aremorica2954. Agrippa makes the entire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna and Jura, excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420 miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond2955 are inhabited by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after whom come the Menapii2956, the Morini2957, the Oromarsaci2958, who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as Gesoriacum2959, the Britanni2960, the Ambiani2961, the Bellovaci2962, the Hassi2963, and, more in the interior, the Catoslugi2964, the Atrebates2965, the Nervii2966, a free people, the Veromandui2967, the Suæuconi2968, the Suessiones2969, a free people, the Ulmanetes2970, a free people, the Tungri2971, the Sunuci2972, the Frisiabones2973, the Betasi2974, the Leuci2975, a free people, the Treveri2976, who were formerly free, and the Lingones2977, a federal state, the federal Remi2978, the Mediomatrici2979, the Sequani2980, the Raurici2981, and the Helvetii2982. The Roman colonies are Equestris2983 and Rauriaca2984. The nations of Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the Nemetes2985, the Triboci2986, and the Vangiones2987; nearer again2988, the Ubii2989, the Colony2990 of Agrippina, the Cugerni2991, the Batavi2992, and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine.

CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS.

That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis2993 contains the Lexovii2994, the Vellocasses2995, the Galeti2996, the Veneti2997, the Abrincatui2998, the Ossismi2999, and the celebrated river Ligeris3000, as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into the ocean at the extremity3001 of the territory of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 6253002 miles, and its breadth at the neck 1253003. Beyond this are the Nannetes3004, and in the interior are the Ædui3005, a federal people, the Carnuti3006, a federal people, the Boii3007, the Senones3008, the Aulerci, both those surnamed Eburovices3009 and those called Cenomanni3010, the Meldi3011, a free people, the Parisii3012, the Tricasses3013, the Andecavi3014, the Viducasses3015, the Bodiocasses3016, the Venelli3017, the Cariosvelites3018, the Diablinti3019, the Rhedones3020, the Turones3021, the Atesui3022, and the Secusiani3023, a free people, in whose territory is the colony of Lugdunum3024.

CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA.

In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri3025, the Anagnutes3026, the Pictones3027, the Santoni3028, a free people, the Bituriges3029, surnamed Vivisci, the Aquitani3030, from whom the province derives its name, the Sediboviates3031, the Convenæ3032, who together form one town, the Begerri3033, the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani3034, the Cocosates Sexsignani3035, the Venami3036, the Onobrisates3037, the Belendi3038, and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these are the Monesi3039, the Oscidates3040 a mountain race, the Sibyllates3041, the Camponi3042, the Bercorcates3043, the Pindedunni3044, the Lassunni3045, the Vellates3046, the Tornates3047, the Consoranni3048, the Ausci3049, the Elusates3050, the Sottiates3051, the Oscidates Campestres3052, the Succasses3053, the Tarusates3054, the Basabocates3055, the Vassei3056, the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Agessinates3057. Joining up to the Pictones are the Bituriges3058, a free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the Lemovices3059, the Arverni3060, a free people, and the Gabales3061.

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the Ruteni3062, the Cadurci3063, the Nitiobriges3064, and the Petrocori3065, separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine, the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the Veneti, which bear the name of “Veneticæ3066,” as also in the Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus3067.

CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN.

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself3068 in its other parts, as we have previously mentioned3069, seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west3070, divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones3071, Olarso3072, the towns of the Varduli3073, the Morosgi3074, Menosca3075, Vesperies3076, and the Port of Amanus3077, where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the Cantabri3078, the river Sauga3079, and the Port of Victoria of the Juliobrigenses3080, from which place the sources of the Iberus3081 are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium3082, the Orgenomesci3083, a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca3084 their port, the country of the Astures3085, the town of Noega3086, and on a peninsula3087, the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus3088, after passing the river Navilubio3089, the Cibarci3090, the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ3091, the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florius3092 and Nelo, the Celtici3093, surnamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici3094, in whose peninsula3095 are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated3096 to Augustus; the Capori3097, the town of Noela3098, the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the Cileni3099: of the islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata3100 and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the Bracari3101, we have the Heleni3102, the Gravii3103, and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ3104, the famous city of Abobrica3105, the river Minius3106, four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi3107, and Augusta3108, a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river Limia3109, and the river Durius3110, one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the Pelendones3111, passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and white3112.

CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA.

After passing the Durius, Lusitania3113 begins. We here have the ancient Turduli3114, the Pæsuri, the river Vaga3115, the town of Talabrica, the town and river3116 of Æminium, the towns of Conimbrica3117, Collippo3118, and Eburobritium3119. A promontory3120 then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called Artabrum3121, by others the Great Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the city3122 near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side3123 of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that never3124 was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river Æminius3125 is distant 200 miles, which others3126 suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the Munda3127 lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sands3128. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory3129, projecting from nearly the very middle of the front3130 of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentioned3131 Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the Vettones3132. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory3133 are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo3134, famous for its mares, which conceive3135 from the west wind; Salacia3136, which is surnamed the Imperial City; Merobrica3137; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of Cuneus3138, and the towns of Ossonoba3139, Balsa3140, and Myrtili3141.

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita3142, situate on the river Anas, Metallinum3143, Pax3144, and Norba3145, surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra Servilia3146 and Castra Cæcilia3147 resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of Scalabis3148, which also has the name of Præsidium Julium3149. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia3150, is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are Ebora3151, which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia3152, and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already3153 alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses3154, the Ammienses3155, the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the Caperenses3156, the Caurenses3157, the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the Concordienses3158, the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lancienses3159, the Mirobrigenses, surnamed3160 Celtici, the Medubrigenses3161, surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses3162 or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme3163 promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600.

CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called Cassiterides3164, in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the Promontory3165 of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands3166. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet3167 distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens3168, and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus Aphrodisias3169, and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa3170, from its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos3171; the Carthaginians Gadir3172, that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that name3173.

CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE.

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previously3174 stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini3175, the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the Legions3176 in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

Summary.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

Roman Authors quoted.—Cato the Censor3177, M. Varro3178, M. Agrippa3179, the late Emperor Augustus3180, Varro Atacinus3181, Cornelius Nepos3182, Hyginus3183, L. Vetus3184, Mela Pomponius3185, Licinius Mucianus3186, Fabricius Tuscus3187, Ateius Capito3188, Ateius the Philologist3189.

Foreign Authors quoted.—Polybius3190, Hecatæus3191, Hellanicus3192, Damastes3193, Eudoxus3194, Dicæarchus3195, Timosthenes3196, Eratosthenes3197, Ephorus3198, Crates the Grammarian3199, Serapion3200 of Antioch, Callimachus3201, Artemidorus3202, Apollodorus3203, Agathocles3204, Eumachus3205, Timæus the Sicilian3206, Myrsilus3207, Alexander Polyhistor3208, Thucydides3209, Dosiades3210, Anaximander3211, Philistides Mallotes3212, Dionysius3213, Aristides3214, Callidemus3215, Menæchmus3216, Aglaosthenes3217, Anticlides3218, Heraclides3219, Philemon3220, Xenophon3221, Pytheas3222, Isidorus3223, Philonides3224, Xenagoras3225, Astynomus3226, Staphylus3227, Aristocritus3228, Metrodorus3229, Cleobulus3230, Posidonius3231.

BOOK V.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1.—THE TWO MAURITANIAS.

The Greeks have given the name of Libya3232 to Africa, and have called the sea that lies in front of it the Libyan Sea. It has Egypt for its boundary, and no part of the earth is there that has fewer gulfs or inlets, its shores extending in a lengthened line from the west in an oblique direction. The names of its peoples, and its cities in especial, cannot possibly be pronounced with correctness, except by the aid of their own native tongues. Its population, too, for the most part dwells only in fortresses3233.

(1.) On our entrance into Africa, we find the two Mauritanias, which, until the time of Caius Cæsar3234, the son of Germanicus, were kingdoms; but, suffering under his cruelty, they were divided into two provinces. The extreme promontory of Africa, which projects into the ocean, is called Ampelusia3235 by the Greeks. There were formerly two towns, Lissa and Cotte3236, beyond the Pillars of Hercules; but, at the present day, we only find that of Tingi3237, which was formerly founded by Antæus, and afterwards received the name of Traducta Julia3238, from Claudius Cæsar, when he established a colony there. It is thirty miles distant from Belon3239, a town of Bætica, where the passage across is the shortest. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Tingi, upon the shores of the ocean3240, we come to Julia Constantia Zilis3241, a colony of Augustus. This place is exempt from all subjection to the kings of Mauritania, and is included in the legal jurisdiction of Bætica. Thirty-two miles distant from Julia Constantia is Lixos3242, which was made a Roman colony by Claudius Cæsar, and which has been the subject of such wondrous fables, related by the writers of antiquity. At this place, according to the story, was the palace of Antæus; this was the scene of his combat with Hercules, and here were the gardens of the Hesperides3243. An arm of the sea flows into the land here, with a serpentine channel, and, from the nature of the locality, this is interpreted at the present day as having been what was really represented by the story of the dragon keeping guard there. This tract of water surrounds an island, the only spot which is never overflowed by the tides of the sea, although not quite so elevated as the rest of the land in its vicinity. Upon this island, also, there is still in existence the altar of Hercules; but of the grove that bore the golden fruit, there are no traces left, beyond some wild olive-trees. People will certainly be the less surprised at the marvellous falsehoods of the Greeks, which have been related about this place and the river Lixos3244, when they reflect that some of our own3245 countrymen as well, and that too very recently, have related stories in reference to them hardly less monstrous; how that this city is remarkable for its power and extensive influence, and how that it is even greater than Great Carthage ever was; how, too, that it is situate just opposite to Carthage, and at an almost immeasurable distance from Tingi, together with other details of a similar nature, all of which Cornelius Nepos has believed with the most insatiate credulity3246.

In the interior, at a distance of forty miles from Lixos, is Babba3247, surnamed Julia Campestris, another colony of Augustus; and, at a distance of seventy-five, a third, called Banasa3248, with the surname of Valentia. At a distance of thirty-five miles from this last is the town of Volubilis, which is just that distance also from both3249 seas. On the coast, at a distance of fifty miles from Lixos, is the river Subur3250, which flows past the colony of Banasa, a fine river, and available for the purposes of navigation. At the same distance from it is the city of Sala3251, situate on a river which bears the same name, a place which stands upon the very verge of the desert, and though infested by troops of elephants, is much more exposed to the attacks of the nation of the Autololes, through whose country lies the road to Mount Atlas, the most fabulous3252 locality even in Africa.

It is from the midst of the sands, according to the story, that this mountain3253 raises its head to the heavens; rugged and craggy on the side which looks toward the shores of the ocean to which it has given its name, while on that which faces the interior of Africa it is shaded by dense groves of trees, and refreshed by flowing streams; fruits of all kinds springing up there spontaneously to such an extent, as to more than satiate every possible desire. Throughout the daytime, no inhabitant is to be seen; all is silent, like that dreadful stillness which reigns in the desert. A religious horror steals imperceptibly over the feelings of those who approach, and they feel themselves smitten with awe at the stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches beyond the clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon. At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted up; it is then the scene of the gambols of the Ægipans3254 and the Satyr crew, while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute and the pipe, and the clash of drums and cymbals. All this is what authors of high character have stated, in addition to the labours which Hercules and Perseus there experienced. The space which intervenes before you arrive at this mountain is immense, and the country quite unknown.

There formerly existed some Commentaries written by Hanno3255, a Carthaginian general, who was commanded, in the most flourishing times of the Punic state, to explore the sea-coast of Africa. The greater part of the Greek and Roman writers have followed him, and have related, among other fabulous stories, that many cities there were founded by him, of which no remembrance, nor yet the slightest vestige, now exists.

While Scipio Æmilianus held the command in Sicily, Polybius the historian received a fleet from him for the purpose of proceeding on a voyage of discovery in this part of the world. He relates, that beyond3256 Mount Atlas, proceeding in a westerly direction, there are forests filled with wild beasts, peculiar to the soil of Africa, as far as the river Anatis3257, a distance of 485 miles, Lixos being distant from it 205 miles. Agrippa says, that Lixos is distant from the Straits of Gades 112 miles. After it we come to a gulf which is called the Gulf of Saguti3258, a town situate on the Promontory of Mulelacha3259, the rivers Subur and Salat3260, and the port of Rutubis3261, distant from Lixos 213 miles. We then come to the Promontory of the Sun3262, the port of Risardir3263, the Gætulian Autololes, the river Cosenus3264, the nations of the Selatiti and the Masati, the river Masathat3265, and the river Darat3266, in which crocodiles are found. After this we come to a large gulf, 6163267 miles in extent, which is enclosed by a promontory of Mount Barce3268, which runs out in a westerly direction, and is called Surrentium3269. Next comes the river Salsus3270, beyond which lie the Æthiopian Perorsi, at the back of whom are the Pharusii3271, who are bordered upon by the Gætulian Daræ3272, lying in the interior. Upon the coast again, we find the Æthiopian Daratitæ, and the river Bambotus3273, teeming with crocodiles and hippopotami. From this river there is a continuous range3274 of mountains till we come to the one which is known by the name of Theon Ochema3275, from which to the Hesperian Promontory3276 is a voyage of ten days and nights; and in the middle of this space he3277 has placed Mount Atlas, which by all other writers has been stated to be in the extreme parts of Mauritania.

The Roman arms, for the first time, pursued their conquests into Mauritania, under the Emperor Claudius, when the freedman Ædemon took up arms to avenge the death of King Ptolemy3278, who had been put to death by Caius Cæsar; and it is a well-known fact, that on the flight of the barbarians our troops reached Mount Atlas. It became a boast, not only among men of consular rank, and generals selected from the senate, who at that time held the command, but among persons of equestrian rank as well, who after that period held the government there, that they had penetrated as far as Mount Atlas. There are, as we have already stated, five Roman colonies in this province; and it may very possibly appear, if we listen only to what report says, that this mountain is easily accessible. Upon trial, however, it has been pretty generally shown, that all such statements are utterly fallacious; and it is too true, that men in high station, when they are disinclined to take the trouble of inquiring into the truth, through a feeling of shame at their ignorance are not averse to be guilty of falsehood; and never is implicit credence more readily given, than when a falsehood is supported by the authority of some personage of high consideration. For my own part, I am far less surprised that there are still some facts remaining undiscovered by men of the equestrian order, and even those among them who have attained senatorial rank, than that the love of luxury has left anything unascertained; the impulse of which must be great indeed, and most powerfully felt, when the very forests are ransacked for their ivory and citron-wood3279, and all the rocks of Gætulia are searched for the murex and the purple.

From the natives, however, we learn, that on the coast, at a distance of 150 miles from the Salat, the river Asana3280 presents itself; its waters are salt, but it is remarkable for its fine harbour. They also say that after this we come to a river known by the name of Fut3281, and then, after crossing another called Vior which lies on the road, at a distance of 200 miles we arrive at Dyris3282, such being the name which in their language they give to Mount Atlas. According to their story there are still existing in its vicinity many vestiges which tend to prove that the locality was once inhabited; such as the remains of vineyards and plantations of palm-trees.

Suetonius Paulinus3283, whom we have seen Consul in our own time, was the first Roman general who advanced a distance of some miles beyond Mount Atlas. He has given us the same information as we have received from other sources with reference to the extraordinary height of this mountain, and at the same time he has stated that all the lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense and lofty forests composed of trees of species hitherto unknown. The height of these trees, he says, is remarkable; the trunks are without knots, and of a smooth and glossy surface; the foliage is like that of the cypress, and besides sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered with a flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the produce of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit of this mountain is covered with snow even in summer, and says that having arrived there after a march of ten days, he proceeded some distance beyond it as far as a river which bears the name of Ger3284; the road being through deserts covered with a black sand3285, from which rocks that bore the appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, projected every here and there; localities rendered quite uninhabitable by the intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced, although it was in the winter season that he visited them. We also learn from the same source that the people who inhabit the adjoining forests, which are full of all kinds of elephants, wild beasts, and serpents, have the name of Canarii; from the circumstance that they partake of their food in common with the canine race, and share with it the entrails of wild beasts.

It is a well-known fact, that adjoining to these localities is a nation of Æthiopians, which bears the name of Perorsi. Juba, the father of Ptolemy, who was the first king3286 who reigned over both the Mauritanias, and who has been rendered even more famous by the brilliancy of his learning than by his kingly rank, has given us similar information relative to Mount Atlas, and states that a certain herb grows there, which has received the name of ‘euphorbia’3287 from that of his physician, who was the first to discover it. Juba extols with wondrous praises the milky juice of this plant as tending to improve the sight, and acting as a specific against the bites of serpents and all kinds of poison; and to this subject alone he has devoted an entire book. Thus much, if indeed not more than enough, about Mount Atlas.

(2.) The province of Tingitana is 170 miles in length3288. Of the nations in this province the principal one was formerly that of the Mauri3289, who have given to it the name of Mauritania, and have been by many writers called the Maurusii3290. This nation has been greatly weakened by the disasters of war, and is now dwindled down to a few families only3291. Next to the Mauri was formerly the nation of the Massæsyli3292; they in a similar manner have become extinct. Their country is now occupied by the Gætulian nations3293, the Baniuræ3294, the Autololes3295, by far the most powerful people among them all, and the Vesuni, who formerly were a part of the Autololes, but have now separated from them, and, turning their steps towards the Æthiopians3296, have formed a distinct nation of their own. This province, in the mountainous district which lies on its eastern side, produces elephants, as also on the heights of Mount Abyla3297 and among those elevations which, from the similarity of their height, are called the Seven Brothers3298. Joining the range of Abyla these mountains overlook the Straits of Gades. At the extremity of this chain begin the shores of the inland sea3299, and we come to the Tamuda3300, a navigable stream, with the site of a former town of the same name, and then the river Laud3301, which is also navigable for vessels, the town and port of Rhysaddir3302, and Malvane3303, a navigable stream.

The city of Siga3304, formerly the residence of King Syphax, lies opposite to that of Malaca3305 in Spain: it now belongs to the second3306 Mauritania. But these countries, I should remark, for a long time retained the names of their respective kings, the further Mauritania being called the “land of Bogud3307,” while that which is now called Cæsariensis was called the “country of Bocchus.” After passing Siga we come to the haven called “Portus Magnus3308” from its great extent, with a town whose people enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and then the river Mulucha3309, which served as the limit between the territory of Bocchus and that of the Massæsyli. Next to this is Quiza Xenitana3310, a town founded by strangers, and Arsenaria3311, a place with the ancient Latin rights, three miles distant from the sea. We then come to Cartenna3312, a colony founded under Augustus by the second legion, and Gunugum3313, another colony founded by the same emperor, a prætorian cohort being established there; the Promontory of Apollo3314, and a most celebrated city, now called Cæsarea3315, but formerly known by the name of Iol; this place was the residence of King Juba, and received the rights of a colony from the now deified Emperor Claudius. Oppidum Novum3316 is the next place; a colony of veterans was established here by command of the same emperor. Next to it is Tipasa3317, which has received Latin rights, as also Icasium3318, which has been presented by the Emperor Vespasianus with similar rights; Rusconiæ3319, a colony founded by Augustus; Rusucurium3320, honoured by Claudius with the rights of Roman citizens; Ruzacus3321, a colony founded by Augustus; Salde3322, another colony founded by the same emperor; Igilgili3323, another; and the town of Tucca3324, situate on the sea-shore and upon the river Ampsaga. In the interior are the colony of Augusta, also called Succabar3325, Tubusuptus3326, the cities of Timici and Tigavæ3327, the rivers Sardabal3328, Aves3329, and Nabar3330, the nation of the Macurebi, the river Usar3331, and the nation of the Nababes. The river Ampsaga is distant from Cæsarea 3223332 miles. The length of the two Mauritanias is 1038, and their breadth 467 miles.

CHAP. 2. (3.)—NUMIDIA.

At the river Ampsaga Numidia begins, a country rendered illustrious by the fame of Masinissa. By the Greeks this region was called Metagonitis3333; and the Numidians received the name of “Nomades” from their frequent changes of pasturage; upon which occasions they were accustomed to carry3334 their mapalia, or in other words, their houses, upon waggons. The towns of this country are Cullu3335 and Rusicade3336; and at a distance of forty-eight miles from the latter, in the interior, is the colony of Cirta3337, surnamed “of the Sitiani;” still more inland is another colony called Sicca3338, with the free town of Bulla Regia3339. On the coast are Tacatua3340, Hippo Regius3341, the river Armua3342, and the town of Tabraca3343, with the rights of Roman citizens. The river Tusca3344 forms the boundary of Numidia. This country produces nothing remarkable except its marble3345 and wild beasts.

CHAP. 3. (4.)—AFRICA.

Beyond the river Tusca begins the region of Zeugitana3346, and that part which properly bears the name of Africa3347. We here find three promontories; the White Promontory3348, the Promontory of Apollo3349, facing Sardinia, and that of Mercury3350, opposite to Sicily. Projecting into the sea these headlands form two gulfs, the first of which bears the name of “Hipponensis” from its proximity to the city called Hippo Dirutus3351, a corruption of the Greek name Diarrhytus, which it has received from the channels made for irrigation. Adjacent to this place, but at a greater distance from the sea-shore, is Theudalis3352, a town exempt from tribute. We then come to the Promontory of Apollo, and upon the second gulf, we find Utica3353, a place enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, and famous for the death of Cato; the river Bagrada3354, the place called Castra Cornelia3355, the colony3356 of Carthage, founded upon the remains of Great Carthage3357, the colony of Maxula3358, the towns of Carpi3359, Misua, and Clypea3360, the last a free town, on the Promontory of Mercury; also Curubis, a free town3361, and Neapolis3362.

Here commences the second division3363 of Africa properly so called. Those who inhabit Byzacium have the name of Libyphœnices3364. Byzacium is the name of a district which is 250 miles in circumference, and is remarkable for its extreme fertility, as the ground returns the seed sown by the husbandman with interest a hundred-fold3365. Here are the free towns of Leptis3366, Adrumetum3367, Ruspina3368, and Thapsus3369; and then Thenæ3370, Macomades3371, Tacape3372, and Sabrata3373 which touches on the Lesser Syrtis; to which spot, from the Ampsaga, the length of Numidia and Africa is 580 miles, and the breadth, so far as it has been ascertained, 200. That portion which we have called Africa is divided into two provinces, the Old and the New; these are separated by a dyke which was made by order of the second Scipio Africanus3374 and the kings3375, and extended to Thenæ, which town is distant from Carthage 216 miles.

CHAP. 4.—THE SYRTES.

A third Gulf is divided into two smaller ones, those of the two Syrtes3376, which are rendered perilous by the shallows of their quicksands and the ebb and flow of the sea. Polybius states the distance from Carthage to the Lesser Syrtis, the one which is nearest to it, to be 300 miles. The inlet to it he also states to be 100 miles across, and its circumference 300. There is also a way3377 to it by land, to find which we must employ the guidance of the stars and cross deserts which present nothing but sand and serpents. After passing these we come to forests filled with vast multitudes of wild beasts and elephants, then desert wastes3378, and beyond them the Garamantes3379, distant twelve days’ journey from the Augylæ3380. Above the Garamantes was formerly the nation of the Psylli3381, and above them again the Lake of Lycomedes3382, surrounded with deserts. The Augylæ themselves are situate almost midway between Æthiopia which faces the west3383, and the region which lies between3384 the two Syrtes, at an equal distance from both. The distance along the coast that lies between the two Syrtes is 250 miles. On it are found the city of Œa3385, the river Cinyps3386, and the country of that name, the towns of Neapolis3387, Graphara3388, and Abrotonum3389, and the second, surnamed the Greater, Leptis3390.

We next come to the Greater Syrtis, 625 miles in circumference, and at the entrance 312 miles in width; next after which dwells the nation of the Cisippades. At the bottom of this gulf was the coast of the Lotophagi, whom some writers have called the Alachroæ3391, extending as far as the Altars of the Philæni3392; these Altars are formed of heaps of sand. On passing these, not far from the shore there is a vast swamp3393 which receives the river Triton3394 and from it takes its name: by Callimachus it is called Pallantias3395, and is said by him to be on the nearer side of the Lesser Syrtis; many other writers however place it between the two Syrtes. The promontory which bounds the Greater Syrtis has the name of Borion3396; beyond it is the province of Cyrene.

Africa, from the river Ampsaga to this limit, includes 516 peoples, who are subject to the Roman sway, of which six are colonies; among them Uthina3397 and Tuburbi3398, besides those already mentioned. The towns enjoying the rights of Roman citizens are fifteen in number, of which I shall mention, as lying in the interior, those of Assuræ3399, Abutucum, Aborium, Canopicum3400, Cilma3401, Simithium, Thunusidium, Tuburnicum, Tynidrumum, Tibiga, the two towns called Ucita, the Greater and the Lesser, and Vaga. There is also one town with Latin rights, Uzalita by name, and one town of tributaries, Castra Cornelia3402. The free towns are thirty in number, among which we may mention, in the interior, those of Acholla3403, Aggarita, Avina, Abzirita, Canopita, Melizita, Matera, Salaphita, Tusdrita3404, Tiphica, Tunica3405, Theuda, Tagasta3406, Tiga3407, Ulusubrita, a second Vaga, Visa, and Zama3408. Of the remaining number, most of them should be called, in strictness, not only cities, but nations even; such for instance as the Natabudes, the Capsitani3409, the Musulami, the Sabarbares, the Massyli3410, the Nisives, the Vamacures, the Cinithi, the Musuni, the Marchubii3411, and the whole of Gætulia3412, as far as the river Nigris3413, which separates Africa proper from Æthiopia.

CHAP. 5. (5.)—CYRENAICA.

The region of Cyrenaica, also called Pentapolis3414, is rendered famous by the oracle of Hammon3415, which is distant 400 miles from the city of Cyrene; also by the Fountain of the Sun3416 there, and five cities in especial, those of Berenice3417, Arsinoë3418, Ptolemais3419, Apollonia3420, and Cyrene3421 itself. Berenice is situate upon the outer promontory that bounds the Syrtis; it was formerly called the city of the Hesperides (previously mentioned3422), according to the fables of the Greeks, which very often change their localities. Not far from the city, and running before it, is the river Lethon, and with it a sacred grove, where the gardens of the Hesperides are said to have formerly stood; this city is distant from Leptis 375 miles. From Berenice to Arsinoë, commonly called Teuchira, is forty-three miles; after which, at a distance of twenty-two, we come to Ptolemais, the ancient name of which was Barce; and at a distance of forty miles from this last the Promontory of Phycus3423, which extends far away into the Cretan Sea, being 350 miles distant from Tænarum3424, the promontory of Laconia, and from Crete 225. After passing this promontory we come to Cyrene, which stands at a distance of eleven miles from the sea. From Phycus to Apollonia3425 is twenty-four miles, and from thence to the Chersonesus3426 eighty-eight; from which to Catabathmos3427 is a distance of 216 miles. The Marmaridæ3428 inhabit this coast, extending from almost the region of Parætonium3429 to the Greater Syrtis; after them the Ararauceles, and then, upon the coasts of the Syrtis, the Nasamones3430, whom the Greeks formerly called Mesammones, from the circumstance of their being located in the very midst of sands3431. The territory of Cyrene, to a distance of fifteen miles from the shore, is said to abound in trees, while for the same distance beyond that district it is only suitable for the cultivation of corn: after which, a tract of land, thirty miles in breadth and 250 in length, is productive of nothing but laser [or silphium3432].

After the Nasamones we come to the dwellings of the Asbystæ and the Macæ3433, and beyond them, at eleven days’ journey to the west of the Greater Syrtis, the Amantes3434, a people also surrounded by sands in every direction. They find water however without any difficulty at a depth mostly of about two cubits, as their district receives the overflow of the waters of Mauritania. They build houses with blocks of salt3435, which they cut out of their mountains just as we do stone. From this nation to the Troglodytæ3436 the distance is seven days’ journey in a south-westerly direction, a people with whom our only intercourse is for the purpose of procuring from them the precious stone which we call the carbuncle, and which is brought from the interior of Æthiopia. Upon the road to this last people, but turning off towards the deserts of Africa, of which we have previously3437 made mention as lying beyond the Lesser Syrtis, is the region of Phazania3438; the nation of Phazanii, belonging to which, as well as the cities of Alele3439 and Cilliba3440, we have subdued by force of arms, as also Cydamus3441, which lies over against Sabrata. After passing these places a range of mountains extends in a prolonged chain from east to west: these have received from our people the name of the Black Mountains3442, either from the appearance which they naturally bear of having been exposed to the action of fire, or else from the fact that they have been scorched by the reflection of the sun’s rays. Beyond it3443 is the desert, and then Talgæ, a city of the Garamantes, and Debris, at which place there is a spring3444, the waters of which, from noon to midnight, are at boiling heat, and then freeze for as many hours until the following noon; Garama too, that most famous capital of the Garamantes; all which places have been subdued by the Roman arms. It was on this occasion that Cornelius Balbus3445 was honoured with a triumph, the only foreigner indeed that was ever honoured with the triumphal chariot, and presented with the rights of a Roman citizen; for, although by birth a native of Gades, the Roman citizenship was granted to him as well as to the elder Balbus3446, his uncle by the father’s side. There is also this remarkable circumstance, that our writers have handed down to us the names of the cities above-mentioned as having been taken by Balbus, and have informed us that on the occasion of his triumph3447, besides Cydamus and Garama3448, there were carried in the procession the names and models of all the other nations and cities, in the following order: the town of Tabudium3449, the nation of Niteris, the town of Nigligemella, the nation or town of Bubeium3450, the nation of Enipi, the town of Thuben, the mountain known as the Black Mountain, Nitibrum, the towns called Rapsa, the nation of Discera3451, the town of Debris3452, the river Nathabur3453, the town of Thapsagum3454, the nation of Nannagi, the town of Boin, the town of Pege3455, the river Dasibari; and then the towns, in the following order, of Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galia, Balla, Maxalla3456, Zizama, and Mount Gyri3457, which was preceded by an inscription stating that this was the place where precious stones were produced.

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable to keep open the road that leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the predatory bands of that nation have filled up the wells with sand, which do not require to be dug for to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge of the locality. In the late war3458 however, which, at the beginning of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried on with the people of Œa, a short cut of only four days’ journey was discovered; this road is known as the “Præter Caput Saxi3459.” The last place in the territory of Cyrenaica is Catabathmos, consisting of a town, and a valley with a sudden and steep descent. The length of Cyrenean Africa, up to this boundary from the Lesser Syrtis, is 1060 miles; and, so far as has been ascertained, it is 8003460 in breadth.

CHAP. 6. (6.)—LIBYA MAREOTIS.

The region that follows is called Libya Mareotis3461, and borders upon Egypt. It is held by the Marmaridæ, the Adyrmachidæ, and, after them, the Mareotæ. The distance from Catabathmos to Parætonium is eighty-six miles. In this district is Apis3462, a place rendered famous by the religious belief of Egypt. From this town Parætonium is distant sixty-two miles, and from thence to Alexandria the distance is 200 miles, the breadth of the district being 169. Eratosthenes says that it is 525 miles by land from Cyrene to Alexandria; while Agrippa gives the length of the whole of Africa from the Atlantic Sea, and including Lower Egypt, as 3040 miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes, who are generally considered as remarkable for their extreme correctness, state the length to be, from the ocean to Great Carthage 1100 miles, and from Carthage to Canopus, the nearest mouth of the Nile, 1628 miles; while Isidorus speaks of the distance from Tingi to Canopus as being 3599 miles. Artemidorus makes this last distance forty miles less than Isidorus.

CHAP. 7. (7.)—THE ISLANDS IN THE VICINITY OF AFRICA.

These seas contain not so very many islands. The most famous among them is Meninx3463, twenty-five miles in length and twenty-two in breadth: by Eratosthenes it is called Lotophagitis. This island has two towns, Meninx on the side which faces Africa, and Troas on the other; it is situate off the promontory which lies on the right-hand side of the Lesser Syrtis, at a distance of a mile and a half. One hundred miles from this island, and opposite the promontory that lies on the left, is the free island of Cercina3464, with a city of the same name. It is twenty-five miles long, and half that breadth at the place where it is the widest, but not more than five miles across at the extremity: the diminutive island of Cercinitis3465, which looks towards Carthage, is united to it by a bridge. At a distance of nearly fifty miles from these is the island of Lopadusa3466, six miles in length; and beyond it Gaulos and Galata, the soil of which kills the scorpion, that noxious reptile of Africa. It is also said that the scorpion will not live at Clypea; opposite to which place lies the island of Cosyra3467, with a town of the same name. Opposite to the Gulf of Carthage are the two islands known as the Ægimuri3468; the Altars3469, which are rather rocks than islands, lie more between Sicily and Sardinia. There are some authors who state that these rocks were once inhabited, but that they have gradually subsided in the sea.

CHAP. 8. (8.)—COUNTRIES ON THE OTHER SIDE OF AFRICA.

If we pass through the interior of Africa in a southerly direction, beyond the Gætuli, after having traversed the intervening deserts, we shall find, first of all the Liby-Egyptians3470, and then the country where the Leucæthiopians3471 dwell. Beyond3472 these are the Nigritæ3473, nations of Æthiopia, so called from the river Nigris3474, which has been previously mentioned, the Gymnetes3475, surnamed Pharusii, and, on the very margin of the ocean, the Perorsi3476, whom we have already spoken of as lying on the boundaries of Mauritania. After passing all these peoples, there are vast deserts towards the east until we come to the Garamantes, the Augylæ, and the Troglodytæ; the opinion of those being exceedingly well founded who place two Æthiopias beyond the deserts of Africa, and more particularly that expressed by Homer3477, who tells us that the Æthiopians are divided into two nations, those of the east and those of the west. The river Nigris has the same characteristics as the Nile; it produces the calamus, the papyrus, and just the same animals, and it rises at the same seasons of the year. Its source is between the Tarrælian Æthiopians and the Œcalicæ. Magium, the city of the latter people, has been placed by some writers amid the deserts, and, next to them the Atlantes; then the Ægipani, half men, half beasts, the Blemmyæ3478, the Gamphasantes, the Satyri, and the Himantopodes.

The Atlantes3479, if we believe what is said, have lost all characteristics of humanity; for there is no mode of distinguishing each other among them by names, and as they look upon the rising and the setting sun, they give utterance to direful imprecations against it, as being deadly to themselves and their lands; nor are they visited with dreams3480, like the rest of mortals. The Troglodytæ make excavations in the earth, which serve them for dwellings; the flesh of serpents is their food; they have no articulate voice, but only utter a kind of squeaking noise3481; and thus are they utterly destitute of all means of communication by language. The Garamantes have no institution of marriage among them, and live in promiscuous concubinage with their women. The Augylæ worship no deities3482 but the gods of the infernal regions. The Gamphasantes, who go naked, and are unacquainted with war3483, hold no intercourse whatever with strangers. The Blemmyæ are said to have no heads, their mouths and eyes being seated in their breasts. The Satyri3484, beyond their figure, have nothing in common with the manners of the human race, and the form of the Ægipani3485 is such as is commonly represented in paintings. The Himantopodes3486 are a race of people with feet resembling thongs, upon which they move along by nature with a serpentine, crawling kind of gait. The Pharusii, descended from the ancient Persians, are said to have been the companions of Hercules when on his expedition to the Hesperides. Beyond the above, I have met with nothing relative to Africa3487 worthy of mention.

CHAP. 9. (9.)—EGYPT AND THEBAIS.

Joining on to Africa is Asia, the extent of which, according to Timosthenes, from the Canopic mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the Euxine, is 2639 miles. From the mouth of the Euxine to that of Lake Mæotis is, according to Eratosthenes, 1545 miles. The whole distance to the Tanais, including Egypt, is, according to Artemidorus and Isidorus, 63753488 miles. The seas of Egypt, which are several in number, have received their names from those who dwell upon their shores, for which reason they will be mentioned together.

Egypt is the country which lies next to Africa; in the interior it runs in a southerly direction, as far as the territory of the Æthiopians, who lie extended at the back of it. The river Nile, dividing itself, forms on the right and left the boundary of its lower part, which it embraces on every side3489. By the Canopic mouth of that river it is separated from Africa, and by the Pelusiac from Asia, there being a distance between the two of 170 miles. For this reason it is that some persons have reckoned Egypt among the islands, the Nile so dividing itself as to give a triangular form to the land which it encloses: from which circumstance also many persons have named Egypt the Delta3490, after that of the Greek letter so called. The distance from the spot where the channel of the river first divides into branches, to the Canopic mouth, is 146 miles, and to the Pelusiac, 166.

The upper part of Egypt, which borders on Æthiopia, is known as Thebais. This district is divided into prefectures of towns, which are generally designated as “Nomes.” These are Ombites3491, Apollopolites3492, Hermonthites3493, Thinites3494, Phaturites3495, Coptites3496, Tentyrites3497, Diopolites3498, Antæopolites3499, Aphroditopolites3500, and Lycopolites3501. The district which lies in the vicinity of Pelusium contains the following Nomes, Pharbæthites, Bubastites3502, Sethroites, and Tanites3503. The remaining Nomes are those called the Arabian; the Hammonian, which lies on the road to the oracle of Jupiter Hammon; and those known by the names of Oxyrynchites, Leontopolites, Athribites3504, Cynopolites3505, Hermopolites3506, Xoites, Mendesium, Sebennytes3507, Cabasites, Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites, Panopolites, Busirites3508, Onuphites3509, Saïtes3510, Ptenethu, Phthemphu3511, Naucratites3512, Metelites, Gynæcopolites, Menelaites,—all in the region of Alexandria, besides Mareotis in Libya.

Heracleopolites3513 is a Nome on an island3513 of the Nile, fifty miles in length, upon which there is a city, called the ‘City of Hercules.’ There are two places called Arsinoïtes3514: these and Memphites3515 extend to the apex3516 of the Delta; adjoining to which, on the side of Africa, are the two Nomes of Oasites3517. Some writers vary in some of these names and substitute for them other Nomes, such as Heroöpolites3518 and Crocodilopolites3519. Between Arsinoïtes and Memphites, a lake3520, 250 miles, or, according to what Mucianus says, 450 miles in circumference and fifty paces deep, has been formed by artificial means: after the king by whose orders it was made, it is called by the name of Mœris. The distance from thence to Memphis is nearly sixty-two miles, a place which was formerly the citadel of the kings of Egypt; from thence to the oracle of Hammon it is twelve days’ journey. Memphis is fifteen miles from the spot where the river Nile divides into the different channels which we have mentioned as forming the Delta.

CHAP. 10.—THE RIVER NILE.

The sources of the Nile3521 are unascertained, and, travelling as it does for an immense distance through deserts and burning sands, it is only known to us by common report, having neither experienced the vicissitudes of warfare, nor been visited by those arms which have so effectually explored all other regions. It rises, so far indeed as King Juba was enabled to ascertain, in a mountain3522 of Lower Mauritania, not far from the ocean; immediately after which it forms a lake of standing water, which bears the name of Nilides3523. In this lake are found the several kinds of fish known by the names of alabeta3524, coracinus, and silurus; a crocodile also was brought thence as a proof that this really is the Nile, and was consecrated by Juba himself in the temple of Isis at Cæsarea3525, where it may be seen at the present day. In addition to these facts, it has been observed that the waters of the Nile rise in the same proportion in which the snows and rains of Mauritania increase. Pouring forth from this lake, the river disdains to flow through arid and sandy deserts, and for a distance of several days’ journey conceals itself; after which it bursts forth at another lake of greater magnitude in the country of the Massæsyli3526, a people of Mauritania Cæsariensis, and thence casts a glance around, as it were, upon the communities of men in its vicinity, giving proofs of its identity in the same peculiarities of the animals which it produces. It then buries itself once again in the sands of the desert, and remains concealed for a distance of twenty days’ journey, till it has reached the confines of Æthiopia. Here, when it has once more become sensible of the presence of man, it again emerges, at the same source, in all probability, to which writers have given the name of Niger, or Black. After this, forming the boundary-line between Africa and Æthiopia, its banks, though not immediately peopled by man, are the resort of numbers of wild beasts and animals of various kinds. Giving birth in its course to dense forests of trees, it travels through the middle of Æthiopia, under the name of Astapus, a word which signifies, in the language of the nations who dwell in those regions, “water issuing from the shades below.” Proceeding onwards, it divides3527 innumerable islands in its course, and some of them of such vast magnitude, that although its tide runs with the greatest rapidity, it is not less than five days in passing them. When making the circuit of Meroë, the most famous of these islands, the left branch of the river is called Astobores3528, or, in other words, “an arm of the water that issues from the shades,” while the right arm has the name of Astosapes3529, which adds to its original signification the meaning of “side3530.” It does not obtain the name of “Nile” until its waters have again met and are united in a single stream; and even then, for some miles both above and below the point of confluence, it has the name of Siris. Homer has given to the whole of this river the name of Ægyptus, while other writers again have called it Triton3531. Every now and then its course is interrupted by islands which intervene, and which only serve as so many incentives to add to the impetuosity of its torrent; and though at last it is hemmed in by mountains on either side, in no part is the tide more rapid and precipitate. Its waters then hastening onwards, it is borne along to the spot in the country of the Æthiopians which is known by the name of “Catadupi3532;” where, at the last Cataract3533, the complaint is, not that it flows, but that it rushes, with an immense noise between the rocks that lie in its way: after which it becomes more smooth, the violence of its waters is broken and subdued, and, wearied out as it were by the length of the distance it has travelled, it discharges itself, though by many mouths3534, into the Egyptian sea. During certain days of the year, however, the volume of its waters is greatly increased, and as it traverses the whole of Egypt, it inundates the earth, and, by so doing, greatly promotes its fertility.

There have been various reasons suggested for this increase of the river. Of these, however, the most probable are, either that its waters are driven back by the Etesian winds3535, which are blowing at this season of the year from an opposite direction, and that the sea which lies beyond is driven into the mouths of the river; or else that its waters are swollen by the summer rains of Æthiopia3536, which fall from the clouds conveyed thither by the Etesian winds from other parts of the earth. Timæus the mathematician has alleged a reason of an occult nature: he says that the source of the river is known by the name of Phiala, and that the stream buries itself in channels underground, where it sends forth vapours generated by the heat among the steaming rocks amid which it conceals itself; but that, during the days of the inundation, in consequence of the sun approaching nearer to the earth, the waters are drawn forth by the influence of his heat, and on being thus exposed to the air, overflow; after which, in order that it may not be utterly dried up, the stream hides itself once more. He says that this takes place at the rising of the Dog-Star, when the sun enters the sign of Leo, and stands in a vertical position over the source of the river, at which time at that spot there is no shadow thrown. Most authors, however, are of opinion, on the contrary, that the river flows in greater volume when the sun takes his departure for the north, which he does when he enters the signs of Cancer and Leo, because its waters then are not dried up to so great an extent; while on the other hand, when he returns towards the south pole and re-enters Capricorn, its waters are absorbed by the heat, and consequently flow in less abundance. If there is any one inclined to be of opinion, with Timæus, that the waters of the river may be drawn out of the earth by the heat, it will be as well for him to bear in mind the fact, that the absence of shadow is a phænomenon which lasts continuously3537 in these regions.

The Nile begins to increase at the next new moon after the summer solstice, and rises slowly and gradually as the sun passes through the sign of Cancer; it is at its greatest height while the sun is passing through Leo, and it falls as slowly and gradually as it arose while he is passing through the sign of Virgo. It has totally subsided between its banks, as we learn from Herodotus, on the hundredth day, when the sun has entered Libra. While it is rising it has been pronounced criminal for kings or prefects even to sail upon its waters. The measure of its increase is ascertained by means of wells3538. Its most desirable height is sixteen cubits3539; if the waters do not attain that height, the overflow is not universal; but if they exceed that measure, by their slowness in receding they tend to retard the process of cultivation. In the latter case the time for sowing is lost, in consequence of the moisture of the soil; in the former, the ground is so parched that the seed-time comes to no purpose. The country has reason to make careful note of either extreme. When the water rises to only twelve cubits, it experiences the horrors of famine; when it attains thirteen, hunger is still the result; a rise of fourteen cubits is productive of gladness; a rise of fifteen sets all anxieties at rest; while an increase of sixteen is productive of unbounded transports of joy. The greatest increase known, up to the present time, is that of eighteen cubits, which took place in the time of the Emperor Claudius; the smallest rise was that of five, in the year of the battle of Pharsalia3540, the river by this prodigy testifying its horror, as it were, at the murder of Pompeius Magnus. When the waters have reached their greatest height, the people open the embankments and admit them to the lands. As each district is left by the waters, the business of sowing commences. This is the only river in existence that emits no vapours3541.

The Nile first enters the Egyptian territory at Syene3542, on the frontiers of Æthiopia; that is the name of a peninsula a mile in circumference, upon which Castra3543 is situate, on the side of Arabia. Opposite to it are the four islands of Philæ3544, at a distance of 600 miles from the place where the Nile divides into two channels; at which spot, as we have already stated, the Delta, as it is called, begins. This, at least, is the distance, according to Artemidorus, who also informs us that there were in it 250 towns; Juba says, however, that the distance between these places is 400 miles. Aristocreon says that the distance from Elephantis to the sea is 750 miles; Elephantis3545 being an inhabited island four miles below the last Cataract, sixteen3546 beyond Syene, 585 from Alexandria, and the extreme limit of the navigation of Egypt. To such an extent as this have the above-named authors3547 been mistaken! This island is the place of rendezvous for the vessels of the Æthiopians; they are made to fold up3548, and the people carry them on their shoulders whenever they come to the Cataracts.

CHAP. 11.—THE CITIES OF EGYPT.

Egypt, besides its boast of extreme antiquity, asserts that it contained, in the reign of King Amasis3549, 20,000 inhabited cities: in our day they are still very numerous, though no longer of any particular note. Still however we find the following ones mentioned as of great renown—the city of Apollo3550; next, that of Leucothea3551; then Great Diospolis3552, otherwise Thebes, known to fame for its hundred gates; Coptos3553, which from its proximity to the Nile, forms its nearest emporium for the merchandise of India and Arabia; then the town of Venus3554, and then another town of Jupiter3555. After this comes Tentyris3556, below which is Abydus3557, the royal abode of Memnon, and famous for a temple of Osiris3558, which is situate in Libya3559, at a distance from the river of seven miles and a half. Next to it comes Ptolemais3560, then Panopolis3561, and then another town of Venus3562, and, on the Libyan side, Lycon3563, where the mountains form the boundary of the province of Thebais. On passing these, we come to the towns of Mercury3564, Alabastron3565, the town of Dogs3566, and that of Hercules already mentioned3567. We next come to Arsinoë3568, and Memphis3569, which has been previously mentioned; between which last and the Nome of Arsinoïtes, upon the Libyan side, are the towers known as the Pyramids, the Labyrinth3570 on Lake Mœris, in the construction of which no wood was employed, and the town of Crialon3571. Besides these, there is one place in the interior, on the confines of Arabia, of great celebrity, the City of the Sun3572.

(10.) With the greatest justice, however, we may lavish our praises upon Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great on the shores of the Egyptian Sea, upon the soil of Africa, at twelve miles’ distance from the Canopic Mouth and near Lake Mareotis3573; the spot having previously borne the name of Rhacotes. The plan of this city was designed by the architect Dinochares3574, who is memorable for the genius which he displayed in many ways. Building the city upon a wide space3575 of ground fifteen miles in circumference, he formed it in the circular shape of a Macedonian chlamys3576, uneven at the edge, giving it an angular projection on the right and left; while at the same time he devoted one-fifth part of the site to the royal palace.

Lake Mareotis, which lies on the south side of the city, is connected by a canal which joins it to the Canopic mouth, and serves for the purposes of communication with the interior. It has also a great number of islands, and is thirty miles across, and 150 in circumference, according to Claudius Cæsar. Other writers say that it is forty schœni in length, making the schœnum to be thirty stadia; hence, according to them, it is 150 miles3577 in length and the same in breadth.

There are also, in the latter part of the course of the Nile, many towns of considerable celebrity, and more especially those which have given their names to the mouths of the river—I do not mean, all the mouths, for there are no less than twelve of them, as well as four others, which the people call the False Mouths3578. I allude to the seven more famous ones, the Canopic3579 Mouth, next to Alexandria, those of Bolbitine3580, Sebennys3581, Phatnis3582, Mendes3583, Tanis3584, and, last of all, Pelusium3585. Besides the above there are the towns of Butos3586, Pharbæthos3587, Leontopolis3588, Athribis3589, the town of Isis3590, Busiris3591, Cynopolis3592, Aphrodites3593, Sais3594, and Naucratis3595, from which last some writers call that the Naucratitic Mouth, which is by others called the Heracleotic, and mention it instead3596 of the Canopic Mouth, which is the next to it.

CHAP. 12. (11.)—THE COASTS OF ARABIA, SITUATE ON THE EGYPTIAN SEA.

Beyond the Pelusiac Mouth is Arabia3597, which extends to the Red Sea, and joins the Arabia known by the surname of Happy3598, so famous for its perfumes and its wealth. This3599 is called Arabia of the Catabanes3600, the Esbonitæ3601, and the Scenitæ3602; it is remarkable for its sterility, except in the parts where it joins up to Syria, and it has nothing remarkable in it except Mount Casius3603. The Arabian nations of the Canchlæi3604 join these on the east, and, on the south the Cedrei3605, both of which peoples are adjoining to the Nabatæi3606. The two gulfs of the Red Sea, where it borders upon Egypt, are called the Heroöpolitic3607 and the Ælanitic3608. Between the two towns of Ælana3609 and Gaza3610 upon our sea3611, there is a distance of 150 miles. Agrippa says that Arsinoë3612, a town on the Red Sea, is, by way of the desert, 125 miles from Pelusium. How different the characteristics impressed by nature upon two places separated by so small a distance!

CHAP. 13. (12.)—SYRIA.

Next to these countries Syria occupies the coast, once the greatest of lands, and distinguished by many names; for the part which joins up to Arabia was formerly called Palæstina, Judæa, Cœle3613, and Phœnice. The country in the interior was called Damascena, and that further on and more to the south, Babylonia. The part that lies between the Euphrates and the Tigris was called Mesopotamia, that beyond Taurus Sophene, and that on this side of the same chain Comagene. Beyond Armenia was the country of Adiabene, anciently called Assyria, and at the part where it joins up to Cilicia, it was called Antiochia. Its length, between Cilicia and Arabia3614, is 470 miles, and its breadth, from Seleucia Pieria3615 to Zeugma3616, a town on the Euphrates, 175. Those who make a still more minute division of this country will have it that Phœnice is surrounded by Syria, and that first comes the maritime coast of Syria, part of which is Idumæa and Judæa, after that Phœnice, and then Syria. The whole of the tract of sea that lies in front of these shores is called the Phœnician Sea. The Phœnician people enjoy the glory of having been the inventors of letters3617, and the first discoverers of the sciences of astronomy, navigation, and the art of war.

CHAP. 14.—IDUMÆA, PALÆSTINA, AND SAMARIA.

On leaving Pelusium we come to the Camp of Chabrias3618, Mount Casius3619, the temple of Jupiter Casius, and the tomb of Pompeius Magnus. Ostracine3620, at a distance of sixty-five miles from Pelusium, is the frontier town of Arabia.

(13.) After this, at the point where the Sirbonian Lake3621 becomes visible, Idumæa and Palæstina begin. This lake, which some writers have made to be 150 miles in circumference, Herodotus has placed at the foot of Mount Casius; it is now an inconsiderable fen. The towns are Rhinocolura3622, and, in the interior, Rhaphea3623, Gaza, and, still more inland, Anthedon3624: there is also Mount Argaris3625. Proceeding along the coast we come to the region of Samaria; Ascalo3626, a free town, Azotus3627, the two Jamniæ3628, one of them in the interior; and Joppe3629, a city of the Phœnicians, which existed, it is said, before the deluge of the earth. It is situate on the slope of a hill, and in front of it lies a rock, upon which they point out the vestiges of the chains by which Andromeda was bound3630. Here the fabulous goddess Ceto3631 is worshipped. Next to this place comes Apollonia3632, and then the Tower of Strato3633, otherwise Cæsarea, built by King Herod, but now the Colony of Prima Flavia, established by the Emperor Vespasianus: this place is the frontier town of Palæstina, at a distance of 188 miles from the confines of Arabia; after which comes Phœnice3634. In the interior of Samaria are the towns of Neapolis3635, formerly called Mamortha, Sebaste3636, situate on a mountain, and, on a still more lofty one, Gamala3637.

CHAP. 15. (14.)—JUDÆA.

Beyond Idumæa and Samaria, Judæa extends far and wide. That part of it which joins up to Syria3638 is called Galilæa, while that which is nearest to Arabia and Egypt bears the name of Peræa3639. This last is thickly covered with rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest of Judæa by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judæa is divided into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the following order:—That of Hiericus3640, covered with groves of palm-trees, and watered by numerous springs, and those of Emmaüs3641, Lydda3642, Joppe, Acrabatena3643, Gophna3644, Thamna3645, Bethleptephene3646, Orina3647, in which formerly stood Hierosolyma3648, by far the most famous city, not of Judæa only, but of the East, and Herodium3649, with a celebrated town of the same name.

(15.) The river Jordanes3650 rises from the spring of Panias3651, which has given its surname to Cæsarea, of which we shall have occasion to speak3652. This is a delightful stream, and, so far as the situation of the localities will allow of, winds along3653 in its course and lingers among the dwellers upon its banks. With the greatest reluctance, as it were, it moves onward towards Asphaltites3654, a lake of a gloomy and unpropitious nature, by which it is at last swallowed up, and its bepraised waters are lost sight of on being mingled with the pestilential streams of the lake. For this reason it is that, as soon as ever the valleys through which it runs afford it the opportunity, it discharges itself into a lake, by many writers known as Genesara3655, sixteen miles in length and six wide; which is skirted by the pleasant towns of Julias3656 and Hippo3657 on the east, of Tarichea3658 on the south (a name which is by many persons given to the lake itself), and of Tiberias3659 on the west, the hot springs3660 of which are so conducive to the restoration of health.

(16.) Asphaltites3661 produces nothing whatever except bitumen, to which indeed it owes its name. The bodies of animals will not sink3662 in its waters, and even those of bulls and camels float there. In length it exceeds 100 miles being at its greatest breadth twenty-five, and at its smallest six. Arabia of the Nomades3663 faces it on the east, and Machærus on the south3664, at one time, next to Hierosolyma, the most strongly fortified place in Judæa. On the same side lies Callirrhoë3665, a warm spring, remarkable for its medicinal qualities, and which, by its name, indicates the celebrity its waters have gained.

(17.) Lying on the west of Asphaltites, and sufficiently distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the Esseni3666, a people that live apart from the world, and marvellous beyond all others throughout the whole earth, for they have no women among them; to sexual desire they are strangers; money they have none; the palm-trees are their only companions. Day after day, however, their numbers are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of life. Thus it is, that through thousands of ages, incredible to relate, this people eternally prolongs its existence, without a single birth taking place there; so fruitful a source of population to it is that weariness of life which is felt by others. Below this people was formerly the town of Engadda3667, second only to Hierosolyma in the fertility of its soil and its groves of palm-trees; now, like it, it is another heap of ashes. Next to it we come to Masada3668, a fortress on a rock, not far from Lake Asphaltites. Thus much concerning Judæa.

CHAP. 16. (18.)—DECAPOLIS.

On the side of Syria, joining up to Judæa, is the region of Decapolis3669, so called from the number of its cities; as to which all writers are not agreed. Most of them, however, agree in speaking of Damascus3670 as one, a place fertilized by the river Chrysorroös3671, which is drawn off into its meadows and eagerly imbibed; Philadelphia3672, and Rhaphana3673, all which cities fall back towards Arabia; Scythopolis3674 (formerly called Nysa by Father Liber, from his nurse having been buried there), its present name being derived from a Scythian colony which was established there; Gadara3675, before which the river Hieromix3676 flows; Hippo, which has been previously mentioned; Dion3677, Pella3678, rich with its waters; Galasa3679, and Canatha3680. The Tetrarchies3681 lie between and around these cities, equal, each of them, to a kingdom, and occupying the same rank as so many kingdoms. Their names are, Trachonitis3682, Panias3683, in which is Cæsarea, with the spring previously mentioned3684, Abila3685, Arca3686, Ampeloëssa3687, and Gabe3688.

CHAP. 17. (19.)—PHŒNICE.

We must now return to the coast and to Phœnice. There was formerly a town here known as Crocodilon; there is still a river3689 of that name: Dorum3690 and Sycaminon3691 are the names of cities of which the remembrance only exists. We then come to the Promontory of Carmelus3692, and, upon the mountain, a town3693 of that name, formerly called Acbatana. Next to this are Getta3694, Jeba, and the river Pacida, or Belus3695, which throws up on its narrow banks a kind of sand from which glass3696 is made: this river flows from the marshes of Cendebia, at the foot of Mount Carmelus. Close to this river is Ptolemais, formerly called Ace3697, a colony of Claudius Cæsar; and then the town of Ecdippa3698, and the promontory known as the White Promontory3699. We next come to the city of Tyre3700, formerly an island, separated from the mainland by a channel of the sea, of great depth, 700 paces in width, but now joined to it by the works which were thrown up by Alexander when besieging it,—the Tyre so famous in ancient times for its offspring, the cities to which it gave birth, Leptis, Utica, and Carthage3701,—that rival of the Roman sway, that thirsted so eagerly for the conquest of the whole earth; Gades, too, which she founded beyond the limits of the world. At the present day, all her fame is confined to the production of the murex and the purple3702. Its circumference, including therein Palætyrus3703, is nineteen miles, the place itself extending twenty-two stadia. The next towns are Sarepta3704 and Ornithon3705, and then Sidon3706, famous for its manufacture of glass, and the parent of Thebes3707 in Bœotia.

(20.) In the rear of this spot begins the chain of Libanus, which extends 1500 stadia, as far as Simyra; this district has the name of Cœle Syria. Opposite to this chain, and separated from it by an intervening valley, stretches away the range of Antilibanus, which was formerly connected with Libanus3708 by a wall. Beyond it, and lying in the interior, is the region of Decapolis, and, with it, the Tetrarchies already mentioned, and the whole expanse of Palæstina. On the coast, again, and lying beneath Libanus, is the river Magoras3709, the colony of Berytus3710, which bears the name of Felix Julia, the town of Leontos3711, the river Lycos3712, Palæbyblos3713, the river Adonis3714, and the towns of Byblos3715, Botrys3716, Gigarta3717, Trieris3718, Calamos3719, Tripolis3720, inhabited by the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Aradians; Orthosia3721, the river Eleutheros3722, the towns of Simyra and Marathos3723; and opposite, Arados3724, a town seven stadia long, on an island, distant 200 paces from the mainland. After passing through the country in which the before-named mountains end and the plains that lie between, Mount Bargylus3725 is seen to rise.

CHAP. 18.—SYRIA ANTIOCHIA.

Here Phœnicia ends, and Syria recommences. The towns are, Carne3726, Balanea3727, Paltos3728, and Gabale3729; then the promontory upon which is situate the free town of Laodicea3730; and then Diospolis3731, Heraclea3732, Charadrus3733, and Posidium3734.

(21.) We then come to the Promontory of Syria Antiochia. In the interior is the free city of Antiochia3735 itself, surnamed Epidaphnes3736, and divided by the river Orontes3737. On the promontory is Seleucia3738, called Pieria, a free city.

(22.) Beyond it lies Mount Casius3739, a different one from the mountain of the same name3740 which we have already mentioned. The height of this mountain is so vast, that, at the fourth watch3741 of the night, you can see from it, in the midst of the darkness, the sun rising on the east; and thus, by merely turning round, we may at one and the same time behold both day and night. The winding road which leads to its summit is nineteen miles in length, its perpendicular height four. Upon this coast there is the river Orontes, which takes its rise near Heliopolis3742, between the range of Libanus and Antilibanus. The towns are, Rhosos3743, and, behind it, the Gates of Syria3744, lying in the space between the chain of the Rhosian mountains and that of Taurus. On the coast there is the town of Myriandros3745, and Mount Amanus3746, upon which is the town of Bomitæ3747. This mountain separates Cilicia from Syria.

CHAP. 19. (23.)—THE REMAINING PARTS OF SYRIA.

We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Cœle Syria has the town of Apamea3748, divided by the river Marsyas from the Tetrarchy of the Nazerini3749; Bambyx, the other name of which is Hierapolis3750, but by the Syrians called Mabog3751, (here the monster Atargatis3752, called Derceto by the Greeks, is worshipped); and the place called Chalcis3753 on the Belus3754, from which the region of Chalcidene, the most fertile part of Syria, takes its name. We here find also Cyrrhestice, with Cyrrhum3755, the Gazatæ, the Gindareni, the Gabeni, the two Tetrarchies called Granucomatæ3756, the Emeseni3757, the Hylatæ3758, the nation of the Ituræi, and a branch of them, the people called the Bætarreni; the Mariamitani3759, the Tetrarchy known as Mammisea, Paradisus3760, Pagræ3761, the Pinaritæ3762, two cities called Seleucia, besides the one already mentioned, the one Seleucia on the Euphrates3763, and the other Seleucia3764 on the Belus, and the Cardytenses. The remaining part of Syria (except those parts which will be spoken of in conjunction with the Euphrates) contains the Arethusii3765, the Berœenses3766, and the Epiphanæenses3767; and on the east, the Laodiceni3768, who are called the Laodiceni on the Libanus, the Leucadii3769, and the Larissæi, besides seventeen other Tetrarchies, divided into kingdoms and bearing barbarous names.

CHAP. 20. (24.)—THE EUPHRATES.

This place, too, will be the most appropriate one for making some mention of the Euphrates. This river rises in Caranitis3770, a præfecture of Greater Armenia, according to the statement of those who have approached the nearest to its source. Domitius Corbulo says, that it rises in Mount Aba; Licinius Mucianus, at the foot of a mountain which he calls Capotes3771, twelve miles above Zimara, and that at its source it has the name of Pyxurates. It first flows past Derxene3772, and then Anaitica3773, shutting out3774 the regions of Armenia from Cappadocia. Dascusa3775 is distant from Zimara seventy-five miles; from this spot it is navigable as far as Sartona3776, a distance of fifty miles, thence to Melitene3777, in Cappadocia, distant seventy-four3778 miles, and thence to Elegia3779, in Armenia, distant ten miles; receiving in its course the rivers Lycus3780, Arsanias3781, and Arsanus. At Elegia it meets the range of Mount Taurus, but no effectual resistance is offered to its course, although the chain is here twelve miles in width. At its passage3782 between the mountains, the river bears the name of Omma3783; but afterwards, when it has passed through, it receives that of Euphrates. Beyond this spot it is full of rocks, and runs with an impetuous tide. It then divides that part of Arabia which is called the country of the Orei3784, on the left, by a channel three schœni3785 in width, from the territory of the Commageni3786 on the right, and it admits of a bridge being thrown across it, even where it forces a passage through the range of Taurus. At Claudiopolis3787, in Cappadocia, it takes an easterly direction; and here, for the first time in this contest, Taurus turns it out of its course; though conquered before, and rent asunder by its channel, the mountain-chain now gains the victory in another way, and, breaking its career, compels it to take a southerly direction. Thus is this warfare of nature equally waged,—the river proceeding onward to the destination which it intends to reach, and the mountains forbidding it to proceed by the path which it originally intended. After passing the Cataracts3788, the river again becomes navigable; and, at a distance of forty miles from thence, is Samosata3789, the capital of Commagene.

CHAP. 21.—SYRIA UPON THE EUPHRATES.

Arabia, above mentioned, has the cities of Edessa3790, formerly called Antiochia, and, from the name of its fountain, Callirhoë3791, and Carrhæ3792, memorable for the defeat of Crassus there. Adjoining to this is the præfecture of Mesopotamia, which derives its origin from the Assyrians, and in which are the towns of Anthemusia3793 and Nicephorium3794; after which come the Arabians, known by the name of Prætavi, with Singara3795 for their capital. Below Samosata, on the side of Syria, the river Marsyas3796 flows into the Euphrates. At Cingilla ends the territory of Commagene, and the state of the Immei begins. The cities which are here washed by the river are those of Epiphania3797 and Antiochia3798, generally known as Epiphania and Antiochia on the Euphrates; also Zeugma, seventy-two miles distant from Samosata, famous for the passage there across the Euphrates. Opposite to it is Apamia3799, which Seleucus, the founder of both cities, united by a bridge. The people who join up to Mesopotamia are called the Rhoali. Other towns in Syria are those of Europus3800, and what was formerly Thapsacus3801, now Amphipolis. We then come to the Arabian Scenitæ3802. The Euphrates then proceeds in its course till it reaches the place called Ura3803, at which, taking a turn to the east, it leaves the Syrian Deserts of Palmyra3804, which extend as far as the city of Petra3805 and the regions of Arabia Felix.

(25.) Palmyra is a city famous for the beauty of its site, the riches of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance of its water. Its fields are surrounded by sands on every side, and are thus separated, as it were, by nature from the rest of the world. Though placed between the two great empires of Rome and Parthia, it still maintains3806 its independence; never failing, at the very first moment that a rupture between them is threatened, to attract the careful attention of both. It is distant 337 miles from Seleucia3807 of the Parthians, generally known as Seleucia on the Tigris, 203 from the nearest part of the Syrian coast, and twenty-seven less from Damascus.

(26.) Below the deserts of Palmyra is the region of Stelendene3808, and Hierapolis, Berœa, and Chalcis, already mentioned3809. Beyond Palmyra, Emesa3810 takes to itself a portion of these deserts; also Elatium, nearer to Petra by one-half than Damascus. At no great distance from Sura3811 is Philiscum, a town of the Parthians, on the Euphrates. From this place it is ten days’ sail to Seleucia, and nearly as many to Babylon. At a distance of 594 miles beyond Zeugma, near the village of Massice, the Euphrates divides into two channels, the left one of which runs through Mesopotamia, past Seleucia, and falls into the Tigris as it flows around that city. Its channel on the right runs towards Babylon, the former capital of Chaldæa, and flows through the middle of it; and then through another city, the name of which is Otris3812, after which it becomes lost in the marshes. Like the Nile, this river increases at stated times, and at much about the same period. When the sun has reached the twentieth degree of Cancer, it inundates3813 Mesopotamia; and, after he has passed through Leo and entered Virgo, its waters begin to subside. By the time the sun has entered the twenty-ninth degree of Virgo, the river has fully regained its usual height.

CHAP. 22. (27.)—CILICIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

But let us now return to the coast of Syria, joining up to which is Cilicia. We here find the river Diaphanes3814, Mount Crocodilus, the Gates3815 of Mount Amanus, the rivers Androcus3816, Pinarus3817, and Lycus3818, the Gulf of Issos3819, and the town of that name; then Alexandria3820, the river Chlorus3821, the free town of Ægæ3822, the river Pyramus3823, the Gates3824 of Cilicia, the towns of Mallos3825 and Magarsos3826, and, in the interior, Tarsus3827. We then come to the Aleian Plains3828, the town of Cassipolis, Mopsos3829, a free town on the river Pyramus, Thynos, Zephyrium, and Anchiale3830. Next to these are the rivers Saros3831 and Cydnus3832, the latter of which, at some distance from the sea, runs through the free city of Tarsus, the region of Celenderitis with a town3833 of similar name, the place where Nymphæum3834 stood, Soli of Cilicia3835, now called Pompeiopolis, Adana3836, Cibyra3837, Pinare3838, Pedalie3839, Ale, Selinus3840, Arsinoë3841, Iotape3842, Doron, and, near the sea, Corycos, there being a town3843, port, and cave3844 all of the same name. Passing these, we come to the river Calycadnus3845, the Promontory of Sarpedon3846, the towns of Holmœ3847 and Myle, and the Promontory and town of Venus3848, at a short distance from the island of Cyprus. On the mainland there are the towns of Myanda, Anemurium3849, and Coracesium3850, and the river Melas3851, the ancient boundary of Cilicia. In the interior the places more especially worthy of mention are Anazarbus3852, now called Cæsarea, Augusta, Castabala3853, Epiphania3854, formerly called Œniandos, Eleusa3855, Iconium3856, Seleucia3857 upon the river Calycadnus, surnamed Tracheotis, a city removed3858 from the sea-shore, where it had the name of Holmia. Besides those already mentioned, there are in the interior the rivers Liparis3859, Bombos, Paradisus, and Mount Imbarus3860.

CHAP. 23.—ISAURIA AND THE HOMONADES.

All the geographers have mentioned Pamphylia as joining up to Cilicia, without taking any notice of the people of Isauria3861. Its cities are, in the interior, Isaura3862, Clibanus, and Lalasis; it runs down towards the sea by the side of Anemurium3863 already mentioned. In a similar manner also, all who have treated of this subject have been ignorant of the existence of the nation of the Homonades bordering upon Isauria, and their town of Homona3864 in the interior. There are forty-four other fortresses, which lie concealed amid rugged crags and valleys.

CHAP. 24.—PISIDIA.

The Pisidæ3865, formerly called the Solymi, occupy the higher parts of the mountains. In their country there is the colony of Cæsarea, also called Antiochia3866, and the towns of Oroanda3867 and Sagalessos.

CHAP. 25.—LYCAONIA.

These people are bounded by Lycaonia3868, which belongs to the jurisdiction of the province of Asia3869, to which also resort the people of Philomelium3870, Tymbrium3871, Leucolithium3872, Pelta, and Tyrium. To this jurisdiction is also added a Tetrarchy of Lycaonia in that part which joins up to Galatia, containing fourteen states, with the famous city of Iconium3873. In Lycaonia itself the most noted places are Thebasa3874 on Taurus, and Hyde, on the confines of Galatia and Cappadocia. On the [western] side of Lycaonia, and above Pamphylia, come the Milyæ3875, a people descended from the Thracians; their city is Arycanda.

CHAP. 26.—PAMPHYLIA.

The former name of Pamphylia3876 was Mopsopia3877. The Pamphylian Sea3878 joins up to that of Cilicia. The towns of Pamphylia are Side3879, Aspendum3880, situate on the side of a mountain, Pletenissum3881, and Perga3882. There is also the Promontory of Leucolla, the mountain of Sardemisus, and the rivers Eurymedon3883, which flows past Aspendus, and Catarrhactes3884, near to which is Lyrnesus: also the towns of Olbia3885, and Phaselis3886, the last on this coast.

CHAP. 27.—MOUNT TAURUS.

Adjoining to Pamphylia is the Sea of Lycia and the country of Lycia3887 itself, where the chain of Taurus, coming from the eastern shores, terminates the vast Gulf3888 by the Promontory of Chelidonium3889. Of immense extent, and separating nations innumerable, after taking its first rise at the Indian Sea3890, it branches off to the north on the right-hand side, and on the left towards the south. Then taking a direction towards the west, it would cut through the middle of Asia, were it not that the seas check it in its triumphant career along the land. It accordingly strikes off in a northerly direction, and forming an arc, occupies an immense tract of country, nature, designedly as it were, every now and then throwing seas in the way to oppose its career; here the Sea of Phœnicia, there the Sea of Pontus, in this direction the Caspian and Hyrcanian3891, and then, opposite to them, the Lake Mæotis. Although somewhat curtailed by these obstacles, it still winds along between them, and makes its way even amidst these barriers; and victorious after all, it then escapes with its sinuous course to the kindred chain of the Riphæan mountains. Numerous are the names which it bears, as it is continuously designated by new ones throughout the whole of its course. In the first part of its career it has the name of Imaüs3892, after which it is known successively by the names of Emodus, Paropanisus, Circius, Cambades, Paryadres, Choatras, Oreges, Oroandes, Niphates, Taurus, and, where it even out-tops itself, Caucasus. Where it throws forth its arms as though every now and then it would attempt to invade the sea, it bears the names of Sarpedon, Coracesius, Cragus, and then again Taurus. Where also it opens and makes a passage to admit mankind, it still claims the credit of an unbroken continuity by giving the name of “Gates” to these passes, which in one place are called the “Gates of Armenia3893,” in another the “Gates of the Caspian,” and in another the “Gates of Cilicia.” In addition to this, when it has been cut short in its onward career, it retires to a distance from the seas, and covers itself on the one side and the other with the names of numerous nations, being called, on the right-hand side the Hyrcanian and the Caspian, and on the left the Paryadrian3894, the Moschian, the Amazonian, the Coraxican, and the Scythian chain. Among the Greeks it bears the one general name of Ceraunian3895.

CHAP. 28.—LYCIA.

In Lycia, after leaving its promontory3896, we come to the town of Simena, Mount Chimæra3897, which sends forth flames by night, and the city of Hephæstium3898, the heights above which are also frequently on fire. Here too formerly stood the city of Olympus3899; now we find the mountain places known as Gagæ3900, Corydalla3901, and Rhodiopolis3902. Near the sea is Limyra3903 with a river of like name, into which the Arycandus flows, Mount Masycites3904, the state of Andriaca3905, Myra3906, the towns of Aperræ3907 and Antiphellos3908, formerly called Habessus, and in a corner Phellos3909, after which comes Pyrra, and then the city of Xanthus3910, fifteen miles from the sea, as also a river known by the same name. We then come to Patara3911, formerly Pataros, and Sidyma, situate on a mountain. Next comes the Promontory of Cragus3912, and beyond it a gulf3913, equal to the one that comes before it; upon it are Pinara3914, and Telmessus3915, the frontier town of Lycia.

Lycia formerly contained seventy towns, now it has but thirty-six. Of these, the most celebrated, besides those already mentioned, are Canas3916, Candyba, so celebrated for the Œnian Grove, Podalia, Choma, past which the river Ædesa flows, Cyaneæ3917, Ascandalis, Amelas, Noscopium, Tlos3918, and Telandrus3919. It includes also in the interior the district of Cabalia, the three cities of which are Œnianda, Balbura3920, and Bubon3921.

On passing Telmessus we come to the Asiatic or Carpathian Sea, and the district which is properly called Asia. Agrippa has divided this region into two parts; one of which he has bounded on the east by Phrygia and Lycaonia, on the west by the Ægean Sea, on the south by the Egyptian Sea, and on the north by Paphlagonia, making its length to be 473 miles and its breadth 320. The other part he has bounded by the Lesser Armenia on the east, Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia on the west, the province of Pontus on the north, and the Sea of Pamphylia on the south, making it 575 miles in length and 325 in breadth.

CHAP. 29.—CARIA.

Upon the adjoining coast is Caria3922, then Ionia, and beyond it Æolis. Caria surrounds Doris, which lies in the middle, and runs down on both sides of it to the sea. In it3923 is the Promontory of Pedalium3924, the river Glaucus3925, into which the Telmedium3926 discharges itself, the towns of Dædala3927, Crya3928, peopled by fugitives, the river Axon3929, and the town of Calynda3930.

(28.) The river Indus3931, which rises in the mountains of the Cibyratæ3932, receives sixty-five rivers which are constantly flowing, besides upwards of 100 mountain torrents. Here is the free town of Caunos3933, then the town of Pyrnos3934, the port of Cressa3935, from which the island of Rhodes is distant twenty miles; the place where Loryma formerly stood, the towns of Tisanusa3936, Paridion3937, and Larymna3938, the Gulf of Thymnias3939, the Promontory of Aphrodisias3940, the town of Hyda, the Gulf of Schœnus, and the district of Bubasus3941. There was formerly the town of Acanthus here, another name of which was Dulopolis. We then come to Cnidos3942, a free town, situate on a promontory, Triopia3943, and after that the towns of Pegusa and Stadia.

At this last town Doris begins; but, first, it may be as well to describe the districts that lie to the back of Caria and the several jurisdictions in the interior. The first of these3944 is called Cibyratica, Cibyra being a town of Phrygia. Twenty-five states resort to it for legal purposes, together with the most famous city of Laodicea3945.

(29.) This place at first bore the name of Diospolis, and after that of Rhoas, and is situate on the river Lycus, the Asopus and the Caprus3946 washing its sides. The other people belonging to the same jurisdiction, whom it may be not amiss to mention, are the Hydrelitæ3947, the Themisones3948, and the Hierapolitæ3949. The second jurisdiction receives its title from Synnas3950; to it resort the Lycaones3951, the Appiani3952, the Eucarpeni3953, the Dorylæi3954, the Midæi, the Julienses3955, and fifteen other peoples of no note. The third jurisdiction has its seat at Apamea3956, formerly called Celænæ3957, and after that Cibotos. This place is situate at the foot of Mount Signia, the Marsyas, the Obrima, and the Orga, rivers which fall into the Mæander, flowing past it. Here the Marsyas, rising from the earth, again makes its appearance, but soon after buries itself once more at Aulocrenæ3958, the spot where Marsyas had the musical contest with Apollo as to superiority of skill in playing on the flute. Aulocrenæ is the name given to a valley which lies ten miles on the road towards Phrygia from Apamea. As belonging to this jurisdiction, it may be as well to mention the Metropolitæ3959, the Dionysopolitæ3960, the Euphorbeni3961, the Acmonenses3962, the Pelteni3963, and the Silbiani3964, besides nine other nations of no note.

Upon the Gulf of Doris3965 we have Leucopolis, Hamaxitos, Eleus, and Euthene3966. We then come to Pitaium, Eutane3967, and Halicarnassus3968, towns of Caria. To the jurisdiction of this last place six towns were appended by Alexander the Great, Theangela3969, Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus, and Telmissus3970. Halicarnassus lies between two gulfs, those of Ceramus3971 and Iasus3972. We then come to Myndos3973, and the former site of Palæomyndos; also Nariandos, Neapolis3974, Caryanda3975, the free town of Termera3976, Bargyla3977, and the town of Iasus3978, from which the Iasian Gulf takes its name.

Caria is especially distinguished for the fame of its places in the interior; for here are Mylasa3979, a free town, and that of Antiochia3980, on the site of the former towns of Symmæthos and Cranaos: it is now surrounded by the rivers Mæander3981 and Orsinus3982. In this district also was formerly Mæandropolis3983; we find also Eumenia3984, situate on the river Cludros, the river Glaucus3985, the town of Lysias and Orthosa3986, the district of Berecynthus3987, Nysa3988, and Tralles3989, also called Euanthia3990, Seleucia, and Antiochia: it is washed by the river Eudon, while the Thebais runs through it. Some authors say that a nation of Pygmies formerly dwelt here. Besides the preceding towns, there are Thydonos, Pyrrha3991, Eurome3992, Heraclea3993, Amyzon3994, the free town of Alabanda3995, which has given name to that jurisdiction, the free town of Stratonicea3996, Hynidos, Ceramus3997, Trœzene3998, and Phorontis. At a greater distance3999, but resorting to the same place of jurisdiction, are the Orthronienses, the Alindienses4000 or Hippini, the Xystiani4001, the Hydissenses, the Apolloniatæ4002, the Trapezopolitæ4003, and the Aphrodisienses4004, a free people. Besides the above, there are the towns of Coscinus4005, and Harpasa4006, situate on the river Harpasus4007, which also passed the town of Trallicon when it was in existence.

CHAP. 30.—LYDIA.

Lydia, bathed by the sinuous and ever-recurring windings of the river Mæander, lies extended above Ionia; it is joined by Phrygia on the east and Mysia on the north, while on the south it runs up to Caria: it formerly had the name of Mæonia4008. Its place of the greatest celebrity is Sardes4009, which lies on the side of Mount Tmolus4010, formerly called Timolus. From this mountain, which is covered with vineyards, flows the river Pactolus4011, also called the Chrysorroas, and the sources of the Tarnus: this famous city, which is situate upon the Gygæan Lake4012, used to be called Hyde4013 by the people of Mæonia. This jurisdiction is now called that of Sardes, and besides the people of the places already mentioned, the following now resort to it—the Macedonian Cadueni4014, the Loreni, the Philadelpheni4015, the Mæonii, situate on the river Cogamus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, the Tripolitani, who are also called the Antoniopolitæ, situate on the banks of the Mæander, the Apollonihieritæ4016, the Mesotimolitæ4017, and some others of no note.

CHAP. 31.—IONIA.

Ionia begins at the Gulf of Iasos, and has a long winding coast with numerous bays. First comes the Gulf of Basilicum4018, then the Promontory4019 and town of Posideum, and the oracle once called the oracle of the Branchidæ4020, but now of Didymæan Apollo, a distance of twenty stadia from the sea-shore. One hundred and eighty stadia thence is Miletus4021, the capital of Ionia, which formerly had the names of Lelegëis, Pityusa, and Anactoria, the mother of more than ninety cities, founded upon all seas; nor must she be deprived of the honour of having Cadmus4022 for her citizen, who was the first to write in prose. The river Mæander, rising from a lake in Mount Aulocrene, waters many cities and receives numerous tributary streams. It is so serpentine in its course, that it is often thought to turn back to the very spot from which it came. It first runs through the district of Apamea, then that of Eumenia, and then the plains of Bargyla; after which, with a placid stream it passes through Caria, watering all that territory with a slime of a most fertilizing quality, and then at a distance of ten stadia from Miletus with a gentle current enters the sea. We then come to Mount Latmus4023, the towns of Heraclea4024, also called by the same name as the mountain, Carice, Myus4025, said to have been first built by Ionians who came from Athens, Naulochum4026, and Priene4027. Upon that part of the coast which bears the name of Trogilia4028 is the river Gessus. This district is held sacred by all the Ionians, and thence receives the name of Panionia. Near to it was formerly the town of Phygela, built by fugitives, as its name implies4029, and that of Marathesium4030. Above these places is Magnesia4031, distinguished by the surname of the “Mæandrian,” and sprung from Magnesia in Thessaly: it is distant from Ephesus fifteen miles, and three more from Tralles. It formerly had the names of Thessaloche and Androlitia, and, lying on the sea-shore, it has withdrawn from the sea the islands known as the Derasidæ4032 and joined them to the mainland. In the interior also is Thyatira4033, washed by the Lycus; for some time it was also called Pelopia and Euhippia4034.

Upon the coast again is Mantium, and Ephesus4035, which was founded by the Amazons4036, and formerly called by so many names: Alopes at the time of the Trojan war, after that Ortygia and Morges, and then Smyrna, with the surname of Trachia, as also Samornion and Ptelea. This city is built on Mount Pion, and is washed by the Caÿster4037, a river which rises in the Cilbian range and brings down the waters of many streams4038, as also of Lake Pegasæus4039, which receives those discharged by the river Phyrites4040. From these streams there accumulates a large quantity of slime, which vastly increases the soil, and has added to the mainland the island of Syrie4041, which now lies in the midst of its plains. In this city is the fountain of Calippia4042 and the temple of Diana, which last is surrounded by two streams, each known by the name of Selenus, and flowing from opposite directions.

After leaving Ephesus there is another Mantium, belonging to the Colophonians, and in the interior Colophon4043 itself, past which the river Halesus4044 flows. After this we come to the temple4045 of the Clarian Apollo, and Lebedos4046: the city of Notium4047 once stood here. Next comes the Promontory of Coryceium4048, and then Mount Mimas, which projects 150 miles into the sea, and as it approaches the mainland sinks down into extensive plains. It was at this place that Alexander the Great gave orders for the plain to be cut through, a distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of joining the two gulfs and making an island of Erythræ4049 and Mimas. Near Erythræ formerly stood the towns of Pteleon, Helos, and Dorion; we now find the river Aleon, Corynæum, a Promontory of Mount Mimas, Clazomenæ4050, Parthenie4051, and Hippi4052, known by the name of Chytrophoria, when it formed a group of islands; these were united to the continent by the same Alexander, by means of a causeway4053 two stadia in length. In the interior, the cities of Daphnus, Hermesia, and Sipylum4054, formerly called Tantalis, and the capital of Mæonia, where Lake Sale now stands, are now no longer in existence: Archæopolis too, which succeeded Sipylum, has perished, and in their turns Colpe and Libade, which succeeded it.

On returning thence4055 towards the coast, at a distance of twelve miles we find Smyrna4056, originally founded by an Amazon [of that name], and rebuilt by Alexander; it is refreshed by the river Meles, which rises not far off. Through this district run what may almost be called the most famous mountains of Asia, Mastusia in the rear of Smyrna, and Termetis4057, joining the foot of Olympus. Termetis is joined by Draco, Draco running into Tmolus, Tmolus into Cadmus4058, and Cadmus into Taurus. Leaving Smyrna, the river Hermus forms a tract of plains, and gives them its own name. It rises near Dorylæum4059, a city of Phrygia, and in its course receives several rivers, among them the one called the Phryx, which divides Caria from the nation to which it gives name; also the Hyllus4060 and the Cryos, themselves swollen by the rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and Lydia. At the mouth of the Hermus formerly stood the town of Temnos4061: we now see at the extremity of the gulf4062 the rocks called Myrmeces4063, the town of Leuce4064 on a promontory which was once an island, and Phocæa4065, the frontier town of Ionia.

A great part also of Æolia, of which we shall have presently to speak, has recourse to the jurisdiction of Smyrna; as well as the Macedones, surnamed Hyrcani4066, and the Magnetes4067 from Sipylus. But to Ephesus, that other great luminary of Asia, resort the more distant peoples known as the Cæsarienses4068, the Metropolitæ4069, the Cilbiani4070, both the Lower and Upper, the Mysomacedones4071, the Mastaurenses4072, the Briulitæ4073, the Hypæpeni4074, and the Dioshïeritæ4075.

CHAP. 32. (30.)—ÆOLIS.

Æolis4076 comes next, formerly known as Mysia, and Troas which is adjacent to the Hellespont. Here, after passing Phocæa, we come to the Ascanian Port, then the spot where Larissa4077 stood, and then Cyme4078, Myrina, also called Sebastopolis4079, and in the interior, Ægæ4080, Attalia4081, Posidea, Neontichos4082, and Temnos4083. Upon the shore we come to the river Titanus, and the city which from it derives its name. Grynia4084 also stood here on an island reclaimed from the sea and joined to the land: now only its harbours are left4085. We then come to the town of Elæa4086, the river Caïcus4087, which flows from Mysia, the town of Pitane4088, and the river Canaïus. The following towns no longer exist—Canæ4089, Lysimachia4090, Atarnea4091, Carene4092, Cisthene4093, Cilla4094, Cocylium4095, Theba4096, Astyre4097, Chrysa4098, Palæscepsis4099, Gergitha4100, and Neandros4101. We then come to the city of Perperene4102, which still survives, the district of Heracleotes, the town of Coryphas4103, the rivers Grylios and Ollius, the region of Aphrodisias4104, which formerly had the name of Politice Orgas, the district of Scepsis4105, and the river Evenus4106, on whose banks the towns of Lyrnesos4107 and Miletos have fallen to decay. In this district also is Mount Ida4108, and on the coast Adramytteos4109, formerly called Pedasus, which gives its name to the gulf and the jurisdiction so called. The other rivers are the Astron, Cormalos, Crianos, Alabastros, and Hieros, flowing from Mount Ida: in the interior is Mount Gargara4110, with a town of the same name. Again, on the coast we meet with Antandros4111, formerly called Edonis, and after that Cimmeris and Assos, also called Apollonia. The town of Palamedium also formerly stood here. The Promontory of Lecton4112 separates Æolis from Troas. In Æolis there was formerly the city of Polymedia, as also Chrysa, and a second Larissa. The temple of Smintheus4113 is still standing; Colone4114 in the interior has perished. To Adramyttium resort upon matters of legal business the Apolloniatæ4115, whose town is on the river Rhyndacus4116, the Erizii4117, the Miletopolitæ4118, the Pœmaneni4119, the Macedonian Asculacæ, the Polichnæi4120, the Pionitæ4121, the Cilician Mandacadeni, and, in Mysia, the Abrettini4122, the people known as the Hellespontii4123, and others of less note.

CHAP. 33.—TROAS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

The first place in Troas is Hamaxitus4124, then Cebrenia4125, and then Troas4126 itself, formerly called Antigonia, and now Alexandria, a Roman colony. We then come to the town of Nee4127, the Scamander4128, a navigable river, and the spot where in former times the town of Sigeum4129 stood, upon a promontory. We next come to the Port of the Achæans4130, into which the Xanthus4131 flows after its union with the Simois4132, and forms the Palæscamander4133, which was formerly a lake. The other rivers, rendered famous by Homer, namely, the Rhesus, the Heptaporus, the Caresus, and the Rhodius, have left no vestiges of their existence. The Granicus4134, taking a different route, flows into the Propontis4135. The small city of Scamandria, however, still exists, and, at a distance of a mile and a half from its harbour, Ilium4136, a place exempt from tribute4137, the fountain-head of universal fame. Beyond the gulf are the shores of Rhœteum4138, peopled by the towns of Rhœteum4139, Dardanium4140, and Arisbe4141. There was also in former times a town of Achilleon4142, founded near the tomb of Achilles by the people of Mitylene, and afterwards rebuilt by the Athenians, close to the spot where his fleet had been stationed near Sigeum. There was also the town of Æantion4143, founded by the Rhodians upon the opposite point, near the tomb of Ajax, at a distance of thirty stadia from Sigeum, near the spot where his fleet was stationed. Above Æolis and part of Troas, in the interior, is the place called Teuthrania4144, inhabited in ancient times by the Mysians. Here rises the river Caïcus already mentioned. Teuthrania was a powerful nation in itself, even when the whole of Æolis was held by the Mysians. In it are the Pioniæ4145, Andera4146, Cale, Stabulum, Conisium, Teium, Balcea4147, Tiare, Teuthranie, Sarnaca, Haliserne, Lycide, Parthenium, Thymbre, Oxyopum, Lygdamum, Apollonia, and Pergamum4148, by far the most famous city in Asia, and through which the river Selinus runs; the Cetius, which rises in Mount Pindasus, flowing before it. Not far from it is Elæa, which we have mentioned4149 as situate on the sea-shore. The jurisdiction of this district is called that of Pergamus; to it resort the Thyatireni4150, the Mosyni, the Mygdones4151, the Bregmeni, the Hierocometæ4152, the Perpereni, the Tiareni, the Hierolophienses, the Hermocapelitæ, the Attalenses4153, the Panteenses, the Apollonidienses, and some other states unknown to fame. The little town of Dardanum4154 is distant from Rhœteum seventy stadia. Eighteen miles thence is the Promontory of Trapeza4155, from which spot the Hellespont first commences its course.

Eratosthenes tells us that in Asia there have perished the nations of the Solymi4156, the Leleges4157, the Bebryces4158, the Colycantii, and the Tripsedri. Isidorus adds to these the Arimi4159, as also the Capretæ, settled on the spot where Apamea4160 stands, which was founded by King Seleucus, between Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cataonia, and Armenia, and was at first called Damea4161, from the fact that it had conquered nations most remarkable for their fierceness.

CHAP. 34. (31.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE IN FRONT OF ASIA.

Of the islands which lie before Asia the first is the one situate in the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, and which received its name, it is said, from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaüs. A second, called Pharos, is joined by a bridge to Alexandria, and was made a colony by the Dictator Cæsar. In former times it was one day’s sail4162 from the mainland of Egypt; at the present day it directs ships in their course by means of the fires which are lighted at night on the tower4163 there; for in consequence of the insidious nature of the shoals, there are only three channels by which Alexandria can be approached, those of Steganus4164, Posideum4165 and Taurus.

In the Phœnician Sea, before Joppe there is the island of Paria4166, the whole of it forming a town. Here, they say, Andromeda was exposed to the monster: the island also of Arados, already mentioned4167, between which and the continent, as we learn from Mucianus, at a depth of fifty cubits in the sea, fresh water is brought up from a spring at the very bottom by means of leather pipes4168.

CHAP. 35.—CYPRUS.

The Pamphylian Sea contains some islands of little note. The Cilician, besides four others of very considerable size, has Cyprus4169, which lies opposite to the shores of Cilicia and Syria, running east and west; in former times it was the seat of nine kingdoms. Timosthenes states that the circumference of this island is 427 miles, Isidorus4170 375; its length, between the two Promontories of Dinæ4171 and Acamas4172 lying on the west, is, according to Artemidorus, 160^1⁄2 miles, according to Timosthenes, 200. Philonides says that it was formerly called Acamantis, Xenagoras that it had the names of Cerastis4173, Aspelia, Amathusia, and Macaria4174, while Astynomus gives it the names of Cryptos4175 and Colinia. Its towns are fifteen in number, Neapaphos4176, Palæpaphos4177, Curias4178, Citium4179, Corineum, Salamis4180, Amathus4181, Lapethos4182, Solœ, Tamasos4183, Epidarum, Chytri4184, Arsinoë4185, Carpasium4186, and Golgi4187. The towns of Cinyria, Marium, and Idalium4188 are no longer in existence. It is distant from Anemurium4189 in Cilicia fifty miles; the sea which runs between the two shores being called the Channel of Cilicia4190. In the same locality4191 is the island of Eleusa4192, and the four islands known as the Clides4193, lying before the promontory which faces Syria; and again at the end of the other cape4194 is Stiria: over against Neapaphos is Hierocepia4195, and opposite to Salamis are the Salaminiæ.

In the Lycian Sea are the islands of Illyris, Telendos, and Attelebussa4196, the three barren isles called Cypriæ, and Dionysia, formerly called Caretha. Opposite to the Promontory of Taurus are the Chelidoniæ4197, as many in number, and extremely dangerous to mariners. Further on we find Leucolla with its town, the Pactyæ4198, Lasia, Nymphäis, Macris, and Megista, the city on which last no longer exists. After these there are many that are not worthy of notice. Opposite, however, to Cape Chimæra is Dolichiste4199, Chœrogylion, Crambussa4200, Rhoge4201, Enagora, eight miles in circumference, the two islands of Dædala4202, the three of Crya4203, Strongyle, and over against Sidyma4204 the isle of Antiochus. Towards the mouth of the river Glaucus4205, there are Lagussa4206, Macris, Didymæ, Helbo, Scope, Aspis, Telandria, the town of which no longer exists, and, in the vicinity of Caunus4207, Rhodussa.

CHAP. 36.—RHODES.

But the fairest of them all is the free island of Rhodes, 125, or, if we would rather believe Isidorus, 103 miles in circumference. It contains the inhabited cities of Lindos, Camirus4208, and Ialysus4209, now called Rhodos. It is distant from Alexandria in Egypt, according to Isidorus, 583 miles; but, according to Eratosthenes, 469. Mucianus says, that its distance from Cyprus is 166. This island was formerly called Ophiussa4210, Asteria4211, Æthria4212, Trinacrie4213, Corymbia4214, Pœeëssa4215, Atabyria4216, from the name of one of its kings; and, in later times, Macaria4217 and Oloessa4218. The islands of the Rhodians are Carpathus4219, which has given its name to the surrounding sea; Casos4220, formerly known as Achne4221; Nisyros4222, twelve miles distant from Cnidos, and formerly called Porphyris4223; and, in the same vicinity, midway between Rhodes and Cnidos, Syme4224. This island is thirty-seven miles and a half in circumference, and welcomes us with eight fine harbours. Besides these islands, there are, in the vicinity of Rhodes, those of Cyclopis, Teganon, Cordylussa4225, the four islands called Diabetæ4226, Hymos, Chalce4227, with its city of that name, Seutlussa4228, Narthecussa4229, Dimastos, Progne; and, off Cnidos, Cisserussa, Therionarce, and Calydne4230, with the three towns of Notium, Nisyros, and Mendeterus. In Arconnesus4231 there is the town of Ceramus. Off the coast of Caria, there are the islands known as the Argiæ, twenty in number; also Hyetussa4232, Lepsia, and Leros.

The most noted island, however, in this gulf is that of Cos4233, fifteen miles distant from Halicarnassus, and 100 in circumference, according to the opinion of many writers. It was formerly called Merope; according to Staphylus, Cea; Meropis, as Dionysius tells us; and, after that, Nymphæa. In this island there is Mount Prion. Nisyros4234, formerly called Porphyris, is supposed to have been severed from the island of Cos. We next come to the island of Caryanda4235, with a city of that name, and that of Pidosus4236, not far from Halicarnassus. In the Gulf of Ceramicus we also find Priaponnesos4237, Hipponnesos, Psyra, Mya, Lampsa, Æmyndus, Passala, Crusa, Pinnicussa, Sepiussa4238, and Melano. At a short distance from the mainland is an island which bears the name of Cinædopolis, from the circumstance that King Alexander left behind there certain persons of a most disgraceful character.

CHAP. 37.—SAMOS.

The coast of Ionia has the islands of Trageæ, Corseæ4239, and Icaros, which has been previously4240 mentioned; Lade4241, formerly called Late; and, among others of no note, the two Camelidæ4242, in the vicinity of Miletus; and the three Trogiliæ4243, near Mycale, consisting of Philion, Argennon, and Sandalion. There is Samos also, a free4244 island, eighty-seven miles in circumference, or, according to Isidorus, 100. Aristotle tells us, that it was at first called Parthenia4245, after that Dryussa4246, and then Anthemussa4247. To these names Aristocritus has added Melamphyllus4248 and Cyparissia4249: other writers, again, call it Parthenoarussa4250 and Stephane4251. The rivers of this island are the Imbrasus, the Chesius, and the Ibettes. There are also the fountains of Gigartho and Leucothea; and Mount Cercetius. In the vicinity of Samos are the islands of Rhypara, Nymphæa, and Achillea.

CHAP. 38.—CHIOS.

At a distance of ninety-four miles from Samos is the free island of Chios4252, its equal in fame, with a town of the same name. Ephorus says, that the ancient name of this island was Æthalia; Metrodorus and Cleobulus tell us, that it had the name of Chia from the nymph Chione; others again say, that it was so called from the word signifying snow4253; it was also called Macris and Pityusa4254. It has a mountain called Pelennæus; and the Chian marble is well known. It is 1254255 miles in circumference, according to the ancient writers; Isidorus however makes it nine more. It is situate between Samos and Lesbos, and, for the most part, lies opposite to Erythræ4256.

The adjacent islands, are Thallusa4257, by some writers called Daphnusa4258, Œnussa, Elaphitis, Euryanassa, and Arginusa, with a town of that name. All these islands are in the vicinity of Ephesus, as also those called the Islands of Pisistratus, Anthinæ, Myonnesos, Diarreusa,—in both of these last there were cities, now no longer in existence,—Poroselene4259, with a city of that name, Cerciæ, Halone4260, Commone, Illetia, Lepria and Rhesperia, Procusæ, Bolbulæ, Phanæ, Priapos, Syce, Melane, Ænare, Sidusa, Pele, Drymusa4261, Anhydros, Scopelos4262, Sycussa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirreusa, and many others of no note. In the main sea lies the celebrated island of Teos, with a city4263 of that name, seventy-one miles and a half distant from Chios, and the same from the Erythræ.

In the vicinity of Smyrna are the Peristerides4264, Carteria, Alopece, Elæussa, Bachina, Pystira, Crommyonnesos, and Megale4265. Facing Troas there are the Ascaniæ, and the three islands called Plateæ. We find also the Lamiæ, the two islands called Plitaniæ, Plate, Scopelos, Getone, Arthedon, Cœlæ, Lagussæ, and Didymæ.

CHAP. 39.—LESBOS.

But Lesbos4266, distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the most celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte, Lasia, Pelasgia, Ægira, Æthiope, and Macaria, and is famous for its nine cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha has been swallowed up by the sea, Arisbe4267 has perished by an earthquake, and Methymna is now united to Antissa4268; these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of Asia, along a coast of thirty-seven miles. The towns of Agamede and Hiera have also perished. Eresos4269, Pyrrha, and the free city of Mitylene4270, still survive, the last of which was a powerful city for a space of 1500 years. The circumference of the whole island is, according to Isidorus, 168 miles4271, but the older writers say 195. Its mountains are, Lepethymnus, Ordymnus, Macistus, Creon, and Olympus. It is distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and the five called Leucæ4272; Cydonea4273, which is one of them, contains a warm spring. The Arginussæ4274 are four miles distant from Æge4275; after them come Phellusa4276 and Pedna. Beyond the Hellespont, and opposite the shore of Sigeum, lies Tenedos4277, also known by the names of Leucophrys4278, Phœnice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from Lesbos fifty-six miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum.

CHAP. 40. (32.)—THE HELLESPONT AND MYSIA.

The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater violence, and the sea beats against the shore, undermining with its eddies the barriers that stand in its way, until it has succeeded in separating Asia from Europe. At this spot is the promontory which we have already mentioned as Trapeza4279; ten miles distant from which is the city of Abydos4280, where the straits are only seven stadia wide; then the town of Percote4281; Lampsacus4282, at first called Pityusa; the colony of Parium4283, which Homer calls by the name of Adrastia; the town of Priapos4284; the river Æsepus4285; Zelia4286; and then the Propontis4287, that being the name given to the tract of sea where it enlarges. We then come to the river Granicus4288, and the harbour of Artace4289, where a town formerly stood. Beyond this is an island which Alexander joined to the continent, and upon which is Cyzicus4290, a city of the Milesians, which was formerly called Arctonnesos4291, Dolionis, and Dindymis; above it are the heights of Mount Dindymus4292. We then come to the towns of Placia, Ariace4293, and Scylace; in the rear of which places is Mount Olympus, known as the “Mysian Olympus,” and the city of Olympena. There are also the rivers Horisius4294 and Rhyndacus4295, formerly called the Lycus; this last river rises in Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis, and receives the Macestos, and many other streams, dividing in its course Asia4296 from Bithynia4297.

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia, after that, Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The people of it are by Homer called Halizones4298, from the fact that it was a nation begirt by the sea. There was formerly a vast city here, Attussa by name; at present there are twelve cities in existence; among which is Gordiucome4299, otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast, Dascylos4300. We then come to the river Gelbes4301; and, in the interior, the town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the other name of Booscœte4302; Apamea4303, now more generally known as Myrlea of the Colophonians: the river Etheleus also, the ancient boundary of Troas, and the commencement of Mysia. Next to this comes the gulf4304 into which the river Ascanius flows, the town of Bryllion4305, and the rivers Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same name as the last-mentioned river; it was founded by the Milesians at a place which was called Ascania of Phrygia, as an entrepôt for the trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may therefore look upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for making further mention of Phrygia.

CHAP. 41.—PHRYGIA.

Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already mentioned as extending from the Promontory of Lectum4306 to the river Etheleus. On its northern side it borders upon Galatia, on the south it joins Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia, and, on the east, it touches upon Cappadocia. The more celebrated towns there, besides those already mentioned, are Ancyra4307, Andria, Celænæ4308, Colossæ4309, Carina4310, Cotyaion4311, Ceraine, Conium, and Midaium. There are authors who say that the Mœsi, the Brygi, and the Thyni crossed over from Europe, and that from them are descended the peoples called the Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.

CHAP. 42.—GALATIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of Galatia4312, which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater part of the territory taken from that province, as also its former capital, Gordium4313. The Gauls4314 who have settled in these parts, are called the Tolistobogi, the Voturi, and the Ambitouti; those who dwell in Mæonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia stretches along to the north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts being possessed by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are the nations by which those parts are occupied; and they are divided into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in number. Its towns are, among the Tectosages, Ancyra4315; among the Trocmi, Tavium4316; and, among the Tolistobogi, Pessinus4317. Besides the above, the best known among the peoples of this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the Comenses4318, the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the Lystreni4319, the Neapolitani, the Œandenses, the Seleucenses4320, the Sebasteni4321, the Timoniacenses4322, and the Thebaseni4323. Galatia also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the Milyæ4324, about Baris; also upon Cyllanticum and Oroandicum4325, a district of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lycaonia. Besides those already mentioned4326, its rivers are the Sangarius4327 and the Gallus4328, from which last the priests4329 of the Mother of the gods have taken their name.

CHAP. 43.—BITHYNIA.

And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On the road from Cios into the interior is Prusa4330, in Bithynia, founded by Hannibal at the foot of Olympus, at a distance of twenty-five miles from Nicæa, Lake Ascanius4331 lying between them. We then come to Nicæa4332, formerly called Olbia, and situate at the bottom of the Ascanian Gulf; as also a second place called Prusa4333, at the foot of Mount Hypius. Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are no longer in existence. Along the coast we find the rivers Æsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus, Æsyros, Geodos, also called Chrysorroas4334, and the promontory4335 upon which once stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs inland received the name of Craspedites from the circumstance of that town lying, as it were, upon its skirt4336. Astacum4337, also, formerly stood here, from which the same gulf has received the name of the ‘Astacenian’: the town of Libyssa4338 formerly stood at the spot where we now see nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the bottom of the gulf lies Nicomedia4339, a famous city of Bithynia; then comes the Promontory of Leucatas4340, by which the Astacenian Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant from Nicomedia; and then, the land again approaching the other side, the straits4341 which extend as far as the Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate Chalcedon4342, a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly called Procerastis4343, then Colpusa, and after that the “City of the Blind,” from the circumstance that its founders did not know where to build their city, Byzantium being only seven stadia distant, a site which is preferable in every respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of Apamea4344, the Agrippenses, the Juliopolitæ, and Bithynion4345; the rivers Syrium, Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilæus, Scopius, and Hieras4346, which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Beyond Chalcedon formerly stood Chrysopolis4347, and then Nicopolis, of which the gulf, upon which stands the Port of Amycus4348, still retains the name; then the Promontory of Naulochum, and Estiæ4349, a temple of Neptune4350. We then come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from Europe, the distance across being half a mile; it is distant twelve miles and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance of this strait is eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the place where the town of Spiropolis4351 formerly stood. The Thyni occupy the whole of the coast, the Bithyni the interior. This is the termination of Asia, and of the 282 peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of Lycia4352 and this spot. We have already4353 mentioned the length of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as being 239 miles; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes the distance 322^1⁄2.

CHAP. 44.—THE ISLANDS OF THE PROPONTIS.

The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, Elaphonnesus4354, from whence comes the Cyzican marble; it is also known by the names of Neuris and Proconnesus. Next come Ophiussa4355, Acanthus, Phœbe, Scopelos, Porphyrione, Halone4356, with a city of that name, Delphacia, Polydora, and Artaceon, with its city. There is also, opposite to Nicomedia, Demonnesos4357; and, beyond Heraclea, and opposite to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called Bithynia; the island of Antiochia: and, at the mouth of the Rhyndacus, Besbicos4358, eighteen miles in circumference; the islands also of Elæa, the two called Rhodussæ, and those of Erebinthus4359, Megale, Chalcitis4360, and Pityodes4361.

Summary.—Towns and nations spoken of ****. Noted rivers ****. Famous mountains ****. Islands, 118 in number. People or towns no longer in existence ****. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations ****.

Roman Authors quoted.—Agrippa4362, Suetonius Paulinus4363, M. Varro4364, Varro Atacinus4365, Cornelius Nepos4366, Hyginus4367, L. Vetus4368, Mela4369, Domitius Corbulo4370, Licinius Mucianus4371, Claudius Cæsar4372, Arruntius4373, Livius the Son4374, Sebosus4375, the Register of the Triumphs4376.

Foreign Authors quoted.—King Juba4377, Hecatæus4378, Hellanicus4379, Damastes4380, Dicæarchus4381, Bæton4382, Timosthenes4383, Philonides4384, Zenagoras4385, Astynomus4386, Staphylus4387, Aristoteles4388, Aristocritus4389, Dionysius4390, Ephorus4391, Eratosthenes4392, Hipparchus4393, Panætius4394, Serapion4395 of Antioch, Callimachus4396, Agathocles4397, Polybius4398, Timæus4399 the mathematician, Herodotus4400, Myrsilus4401, Alexander Polyhistor4402, Metrodorus4403, Posidonius4404, who wrote the Periplus and the Periegesis, Sotades4405, Periander4406, Aristarchus4407 of Sicyon, Eudoxus4408, Antigenes4409, Callicrates4410, Xenophon4411 of Lampsacus, Diodorus4412 of Syracuse, Hanno4413, Himilco4414, Nymphodorus4415, Calliphanes4416, Artemidorus4417, Megasthenes4418, Isidorus4419, Cleobulus4420, and Aristocreon4421.

END OF VOL. I.

APPENDIX OF CORRECTIONS.

Page

1,

line

9,

The allusion, otherwise obscure, is to the fact that some friends of Catullus had filched a set of table-napkins, which had been given to him by Veranius and Fabius, and substituted others in their place.

„

13,

„

2,

for Roman figures, read other figures.

„

20,

„

7,

for the God of nature; he also tends, down to and most excellent, read the God of nature. He supplies light to the universe, and dispels all darkness; He both conceals and reveals the other stars. It is He that regulates the seasons, and, in the course of nature, governs the year as it ever springs anew into birth; it is He that dispels the gloom of the heavens, and sheds his light upon the clouds of the human mind. He, too, lends his brightness to the other stars. He is most brilliant and most excellent.

„

21,

„

13,

for elected, read erected.

„

21,

„

13,

for good fortune, read evil fortune.

„

23,

„

18,

for our scepticism concerning God is still increased, read our conjectures concerning God become more vague still.

„

23,

„

31,

for and the existence of God becomes doubtful, read whereby the very existence of a God is shewn to be uncertain.

„

33,

„

4,

for as she receives, read as receives.

„

54,

„

15,

for the seventh of the circumference, read the seventh of the third of the circumference.

„

59,

„

36,

for transeuntia, read transcurrentia.

„

67,

„

26,

for circumstances, read influences.

„

78,

„

9,

for higher winds, read higher waves.

„

78,

„

17,

for the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers, read hence it is that the odd numbers are generally looked upon as males.

„

79,

„

15,

for of the cloud, read of the icy cloud.

„

79,

„

21,

for sprinkling it with vinegar, read throwing vinegar against it.

„

79,

„

22,

for this substance, read that liquid.

„

80,

„

13,

for but not until, read and not after.

„

80,

„

14,

for the former is diffused, down to impulse, read the latter is diffused in the blast, the former is condensed by the violent impulse.

„

80,

„

17,

for dash, read crash.

„

81,

„

21,

for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

„

81,

„

27,

for their operation, read its operation.

„

82,

„

8,

for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

„

85,

„

2,

for blown up, read blasted.

„

88,

„

15,

for the east, read the west.

„

89,

„

11,

for even a stone, read ever a stone.

„

92,

„

9,

for how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously, read how many things do we compel her to produce! How many things does she pour forth spontaneously!

„

92,

„

10,

for odours and flowers, read odours and flavours.

„

93,

„

16,

for luxuries, read caprices.

FOOTNOTES:

1 The weight of testimony inclines to the latter. The mere titles of the works which have been written on the subject would fill a volume.

2 At a wedding feast, as mentioned by him in B. ix. c. 58. She was then the wife of Caligula.

3 Related in B. ix. c. 5.

4 Here at Tusdrita, he saw L. Coisicius, who it was said had been changed from a woman into a man. See B. vii. c. 3. Phlegon Trallianus and Ausonius also refer to the story.

5 See B. xvi. c. 2, and B. xxxi. c. 19.

6 Plinii Ep. B. vi. Ep. 16.

7 Twenty-fourth August.

8 “Fortes fortuna juvat.”

9 B. iii. Ep. 5.

10 Nero Claudius Drusus, the son of Livia, afterwards the wife of Augustus. He was the father of the Emperor Claudius, and died in Germany of the effects of an accident.

11 “Studiosus.” This work has perished.

12 “De Dubia Sermone.” A few scattered fragments of it still survive.

13 23rd of August.

14 For astrological presages.

15 At midwinter, this hour would answer at Rome to our midnight.

16 At midwinter, this would be between six and seven in the evening.

17 “Electorum Commentarii.”

18 B. viii. c. 34. His acrimony may however, in this instance, have outstripped his discretion. Though indebted to them for by far the largest amount of his information on almost every subject, he seems to have had a strong aversion to the Greeks, and repeatedly charges them with lying, viciousness, boasting, and vanity. See B. ii. c. 112; B. iii. c. 6; B. v. c. 1; B. xv. c. 5; B. xix. c. 26; B. xxviii. c. 29; B. xxxvii. c. 74.

19 Of Vespasian and Titus for certain; and probably of Nero, who appointed him “procurator Cæsaris” in Spain.

20 Even on that point he contradicts himself in the next Book. See B. viii. c. 19, and 64, in reference to the lion and the horse.

21 See B. vii. c. 51.

22 “Summa vitæ felicitas.” B. vii. c. 54.

23 B. vii. c. 53.

24 He loses no opportunity of inveighing against luxury and sensuality.

25 The question as to a future existence he calls “Manium ambages,” “quiddities about the Manes.” B. vii. c. 56.

26 See B. vii. c. 53.

27 We have already seen that in his earlier years he was warned in a vision by Drusus to write the history of the wars in Germany; but there is a vast difference between paying attention to the suggestions of a dream, and believing in the immortality of the soul, or the existence of disembodied spirits.

28 B. vii. c. 53.

29 B. vii. c. 58, 59, 60.

30 Mankind must surely have agreed before this in making the instruments employed in shaving.

31 “Discours Premier sur l’Histoire Naturelle.”

32 Biographie Universelle. Vol. 35. Art. Pline.

33 This, however, is not the fault of Pliny, but the result of imperfect tradition. To have described every object minutely that he has named, and of which he has given the peculiar properties, would have swollen his book to a most enormous size, almost indeed beyond conception.

34 Lemaire informs us, in his title-page, that the two first books of the Natural History are edited by M. Alexandre, in his edition.

35 “Jucundissime;” it is not easy to find an epithet in our language which will correctly express the meaning of the original, affectionate and familiar, at the same time that it is sufficiently dignified and respectful.

36 Lamb’s trans.; Carm. i. 4. of the original.

37 “Conterraneus;” we have no word in English which expresses the idea intended by the original, and which is, at the same time, a military term. There is indeed some reason to doubt, whether the word now inserted in the text was the one employed by the author: see the remarks of M. Alexandre, in Lem. i. 3; also an observation in Cigalino’s dissertation on the native country of Pliny; Valpy, 8.

38 “Permutatis prioribus sætabis;” Carm. xii. 14; xxv. 7; see the notes in Lamb’s trans. pp. 135 & 149.

39 These names in the original are Varaniolus and Fabullus, which are supposed to have been changed from Veranius and Fabius, as terms of familiarity and endearment; see Poinsinet, i. 24, and Lemaire, i. 4.

40 The narrative of Suetonius may serve to illustrate the observation of Pliny: “Triumphavit (Titus) cum patre, censuramque gessit una. Eidem collega et in tribunicia potestate, et in septem consulatibus fuit. Receptaque ad se prope omnium officiorum cura, cum patris nomine et epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscriberet, orationesque in Senatu recitaret etiam quæstoris vice, præfecturam quoque prætorii suscepit, nunquam ad id tempus, nisi ab Equite Romano, administratum.” (viii. 5.)

41 “Perfricui faciem.” This appears to have been a proverbial expression among the Romans; Cicero, Tusc. Quæs. iii. 41, employs “os perfricuisti,” and Martial, xi. 27. 7, “perfricuit frontem,” in the same sense.

42 Suetonius speaks of Domitian’s taste for poetry, as a part of his habitual dissimulation, viii. 2; see also the notes of Poinsinet, i. 26, and of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 351.

43 “Non eras in hoc albo;” see the note of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 8. A passage in Quintilian, xii. 4, may serve to illustrate this use of the term ‘album’; “... quorum alii se ad album ac rubricas transtulerunt....”

44 It appears that the passage in which Cicero makes this quotation from Lucilius, is not in the part of his treatise De Republica which was lately discovered by Angelus Maius; Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 9. Cicero refers to this remark of Lucilius in two of his other works, although with a variation in the expression and in the individuals specified; De Orat. ii. 6, and De Fin. i. 3.

45 “Qui primus condidit styli nasum.”

46 “Sed hæc ego mihi nunc patrocinia ademi nuncupatione.”

47 “Pecunias deponerent.” Ajasson, i. 11, remarks on these words, “Qui videri volebant ambitu alienissimi, pecuniam apud sanctum aliquem virum deponebant, qua scilicet multarentur, si unquam hujus criminis manifesti fierent.”

48 This expression is not found in any of the works of Cicero which are now extant, nor, indeed, is it certain that it was anything more than a remark made in conversation.

49 “Provocatio,” calling forth.

50 Horace, Epist. ii. 1. 143; Ovid, Fast. iv. 746 and v. 121, and Tibullus, i. 1. 26 and ii. 5. 37, refer to the offerings of milk made by the country people to their rural deities.

51 “... id est, artium et doctrinarum omnium circulus;” Alexandre in Lem. i. 14.

52 These words are not found in any of the books of Livy now extant; we may conclude that they were introduced into the latter part of his work.

53 “Quem nunc primum historiæ Plinianæ librum vocamus, hic non numeratur, quod sit operis index.” Hardouin in Lem. i. 16.

54 Nothing is known of Domitius Piso, either as an author or an individual.

55 The names of these authors will be found, arranged by Hardouin alphabetically, with a brief account of them and their works, in Lem. i. 157 et seq.; we have nearly the same list in Valpy, p. 4903.

56 “Musinamur.” We learn from Hardouin, Lem. i. 17, that there is some doubt as to the word employed by our author, whether it was musinamur or muginamur; I should be disposed to adopt the former, as being, according to the remark of Turnebus, “verbum a Musis deductum.”

57 “A fine Aufidii Bassi;” as Alexandre remarks, “Finis autem Aufidii Bassi intelligendus est non mors ejus, sed tempus ad quod suas ipse perduxerat historias. Quodnam illud ignoramus.” Lem. i. 18. For an account of Aufidius Bassus we are referred to the catalogue of Hardouin, but his name does not appear there. Quintilian (x. 1) informs us, that he wrote an account of the Germanic war.

58 “Jam pridem peracta sancitur.”

59 This sentiment is not found in that portion of the treatise which has been lately published by Angelus Maius. Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 19.

60 The following is probably the passage in the Offices to which Pliny refers: “Panæcius igitur, qui sine controversia de officiis accuratissime disputavit, quemque nos, correctione quadam exhibita, potissimum secuti sumus....” (iii. 2.)

61 “Cum præsertim sors fiat ex usura.” The commentators and translators have differed respecting the interpretation of this passage; I have given what appears to me the obvious meaning of the words.

62 “Lac gallinaceum;” “Proverbium de re singulari et admodum rara,” according to Hardouin, who quotes a parallel passage from Petronius; Lemaire, i. 21.

63 The titles in the original are given in Greek; I have inserted in the text the words which most nearly resemble them, and which have been employed by modern authors.

64 “Lucubratio.”

65 The pun in the original cannot be preserved in the translation; the English reader may conceive the name Bibaculus to correspond to our surname Jolly.

66 “Sesculysses” and “Flextabula;” literally, Ulysses and a Half, and Bend-table.

67 Βιβλιοθήκη.

68 “Cymbalum mundi” and “publicæ famæ tympanum.”

69 “Pendenti titulo;” as Hardouin explains it, “qui nondum absolutum opus significaret, verum adhuc pendere, velut imperfectum.” Lemaire, i. 26.

70 “Homeromastigæ.”

71 “Dialectici.” By this term our author probably meant to designate those critics who were disposed to dwell upon minute verbal distinctions; “dialecticarum captionum amantes,” according to Hardouin; Lem. i. 28.

72 “Quod argutiarum amantissimi, et quod æmulatio inter illos acerbissima.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 28.

73 Pliny the younger, in one of his letters (iii. 5), where he enumerates all his uncle’s publications, informs us, that he wrote “a piece of criticism in eight books, concerning ambiguity of expression.” Melmoth’s Pliny, i. 136.

74 The ancients had very exaggerated notions respecting the period of the elephant’s pregnancy; our author, in a subsequent part of his work (viii. 10), says, “Decem annis gestare vulgus existimat; Aristoteles biennio.”

75 His real name was Tyrtamus, but in consequence of the beauty of his style, he acquired the appellation by which he is generally known from the word θεῖος φράσις. Cicero on various occasions refers to him; Brutus, 121; Orator, 17, et alibi.

76 “Suspendio jam quærere mortem oportere homines vitæque renunciare, cum tantum licentiæ, vel feminæ, vel imperiti homines sumant, ut in doctissimos scribant;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 29. We learn from Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 33, that the name of this female was Leontium; “... sed meretricula etiam Leontium contra Theophrastum scribere ausa sit.”

77 A. Gellius (vii. 4) refers to this work and gives an extract from it.

78 The hostility which Cato bore to Scipio Africanus is mentioned by Livy, xxxviii. 54, and by Corn. Nepos, Cato, i.

79 Lucius Munatius Plancus took a conspicuous part in the political intrigues of the times and was especially noted for his follies and extravagance.

80 Asinius Pollio is a name which stands high in Roman literature; according to the remark of Alexandre, “Vir magnus fuit, prono tamen ad obtrectandum ingenio, quod arguunt ejus cum Cicerone simultates,” Lemaire, i. 30. This hostile feeling towards Cicero is supposed to have proceeded from envy and mortification, because he was unable to attain the same eminence in the art of oratory with his illustrious rival. See Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 168.

81 “Vitiligatores.”

82 The table of contents, which occupies no less than 124 pages in Lemaire’s edition, I have omitted, in consequence of its length; the object which the author proposed to effect by the table of contents will be gained more completely by an alphabetical index.

83 “Ἐποπτίδων.” For an account of Valerius Soranus see Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 217.

84 To the end of each book of the Natural History is appended, in the original, a copious list of references to the sources from which the author derived his information. These are very numerous; in the second book they amount to 45, in the third to 35, in the 4th to 53, in the fifth to 60, in the sixth to 54, and they are in the same proportion in the remaining books.

85 “Spartum;” this plant was used to make bands for the vines and cables for ships.

86 “Mundus.” In translating from one language into another, it is proper, as a general principle, always to render the same word in the original by the same word in the translation. But to this rule there are two exceptions; where the languages do not possess words which precisely correspond, and where the original author does not always use the same word in the same sense. Both these circumstances, I apprehend, apply to the case in question. The term Mundus is used by Pliny, sometimes to mean the earth and its immediate appendages, the visible solar system; and at other times the universe; while I think we may venture to assert, that in some instances it is used in rather a vague manner, without any distinct reference to either one or other of the above designations. I have, in almost all cases, translated it by the term world, as approaching nearest to the sense of the original. The word mundus is frequently employed by Lucretius, especially in his fifth book, and seems to be almost always used in the more extended sense of universe. There are, indeed, a few passages where either meaning would be equally appropriate, and in one line it would appear to be equivalent to firmament or heavens; “et mundi speciem violare serenam,” iv. 138. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, generally uses the term mundus in the sense of universe, as in ii. 22, 37, 58 and 154; while in one passage, ii. 132, it would appear to be employed in the more limited sense of the earth. It occasionally occurs in the Fasti of Ovid, but it is not easy to ascertain its precise import; as in the line “Post chaos, ut primum data sunt tria corpora mundo,” v. 41, where from the connexion it may be taken either in the more confined or in the more general sense. Manilius employs the word very frequently, and his commentators remark, that he uses it in two distinct senses, the visible firmament and the universe; and I am induced to think that he attaches still more meaning to the term. It occurs three times in the first eleven lines of his poem. In the third line, “deducere mundo aggredior,” mundus may be considered as equivalent to the celestial regions as opposed to the earth. In the ninth line, “concessumque patri mundo,” we may consider it as signifying the celestial regions generally; and in the eleventh, “Jamque favet mundus,” the whole of the earth, or rather its inhabitants. We meet with it again in the sixty-eighth line, “lumina mundi,” where it seems more properly to signify the visible firmament; again in the 139th, “Et mundi struxere globum,” it seems to refer especially to the earth, synonymous with the general sense of the English term world; while in the 153rd line, “per inania mundi,” it must be supposed to mean the universe. Hyginus, in his Poeticon Astronomicon, lib. i. p. 55, defines the term as follows: “Mundus appellatur is qui constat in sole et luna et terra et omnibus stellis;” and again, p. 57, “Terra mundi media regione collocata.” We may observe the different designations of the term mundus in Seneca; among other passages I may refer to his Nat. Quæst. vii. 27 & iii. 30; to his treatise De Consol. § 18 and De Benef. iv. 23, where I conceive the precise meanings are, respectively, the universe, the terrestrial globe, the firmament, and the heavenly bodies. The Greek term κόσμος, which corresponds to the Latin word mundus, was likewise employed to signify, either the visible firmament or the universe. In illustration of this, it will be sufficient to refer to the treatise of Aristotle Περὶ Κόσμου, cap. 2. p. 601. See also Stephens’s Thesaurus, in loco. In Apuleius’s treatise De Mundo, which is a free translation of Aristotle’s Περὶ Κόσμου, the term may be considered as synonymous with universe. It is used in the same sense in various parts of Apuleius’s writings: see Metam. ii. 23; De Deo Socratis, 665, 667; De Dogmate Platonis, 574, 575, et alibi.

87 Cicero, in his Timæus, uses the same phraseology; “Omne igitur cœlum, sive mundus, sive quovis alio vocabulo gaudet, hoc a nobis nuncupatum est,” § 2. Pomponius Mela’s work commences with a similar expression; “Omne igitur hoc, quidquid est, cui mundi cœlique nomen indideris, unum id est.” They were probably taken from a passage in Plato’s Timæus, “Universum igitur hoc, Cœlum, sive Mundum, sive quo alio vocabulo gaudet, cognominemus,” according to the translation of Ficinus; Platonis Op. ix. p. 302. The word cœlum, which is employed in the original, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies the heavens, the visible firmament; as in Ovid, Met. i. 5, “quod tegit omnia, cœlum.” It is, in most cases, employed in this sense by Lucretius and by Manilius, as in i. 2. of the former and in i. 14. of the latter. Occasionally, however, it is employed by both of these writers in the more general sense of celestial regions, in opposition to the earth, as by Lucretius, i. 65, and by Manilius, i. 352. In the line quoted by Cicero from Pacuvius, it would seem to mean the place in which the planets are situated; De Nat. Deor. ii. 91. The Greek word οὐρανὸς may be regarded as exactly corresponding to the Latin word cœlum, and employed with the same modifications; see Aristotle, De Mundo and De Cœlo, and Ptolemy, Mag. Const. lib. i. passim; see also Stephens’s Thesaurus, in loco. Aratus generally uses it to designate the visible firmament, as in l. 10, while in l. 32 it means the heavenly regions. Gesner defines cœlum, “Mundus exclusa terra,” and mundus, “Cœlum et quidquid cœli ambitu continetur.” In the passage from Plato, referred to above, the words which are translated by Ficinus cœlum and mundus, are in the original οὐρανὸς and κόσμος; Ficinus, however, in various parts of the Timæus, translates οὐρανὸς by the word mundus: see t. ix. p. 306, 311, et alibi.

88 The following passage from Cicero may serve to illustrate the doctrine of Pliny: “Novem tibi orbibus, vel potius globis, connexa sunt omnia: quorum unus est cœlestis, extimus, qui reliquos omnes complectitur, summus ipse Deus, arcens et continens cœlum;” Som. Scip. § 4. I may remark, however, that the term here employed by our author is not Deus but Numen.

89 We have an interesting account of the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, in a note in M. Ajasson’s translation, ii. 234 et seq., which, as well as the greater part of the notes attached to the second book of the Natural History, were written by himself in conjunction with M. Marcus.

90 The philosophers of antiquity were divided in their opinions respecting the great question, whether the active properties of material bodies, which produce the phænomena of nature, are inherent in them, and necessarily attached to them, or whether they are bestowed upon them by some superior power or being. The Academics and Peripatetics generally adopted the latter opinion, the Stoics the former: Pliny adopts the doctrine of the Stoics; see Enfield’s Hist. of Phil. i. 229, 283, 331.

91 I may remark, that the astronomy of our author is, for the most part, derived from Aristotle; the few points in which they differ will be stated in the appropriate places.

92 This doctrine was maintained by Plato in his Timæus, p. 310, and adopted by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 14, and by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 47. The spherical form of the world, οὐρανὸς, and its circular motion are insisted upon by Ptolemy, in the commencement of his astronomical treatise Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Magna Constructio, frequently referred to by its Arabic title Almagestum, cap. 2. He is supposed to have made his observations at Alexandria, between the years 125 and 140 A.D. His great astronomical work was translated into Arabic in the year 827; the original Greek text was first printed in 1538 by Grynæus, with a commentary by Theon. George of Trebisond published a Latin version of it in 1541, and a second was published by Camerarius in 1551, along with Ptolemy’s other works. John Muller, usually called Regiomontanus, and Purback published an abridgement of the Almagest in 1541. For an account of Ptolemy I may refer to the article in the Biog. Univ. xxxv. 263 et seq., by Delambre, also to Hutton’s Math. Dict., in loco, and to the high character of him by Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, p. 214.

93 See Ptolemy, ubi supra.

94 This opinion, which was maintained by Pythagoras, is noticed and derided by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 9. p. 462-3. A brief account of Pythagoras’s doctrine on this subject is contained in Enfield’s Philosophy, i. 386.

95 Pliny probably here refers to the opinion which Cicero puts into the mouth of one of the interlocutors in his treatise De Nat. Deor. ii. 47, “Quid enim pulchrius ea figura, quæ sola omnes alias figuras complexa continet, quæque nihil asperitatis habere, nihil offensionis potest, nihil incisum angulis, nihil anfractibus, nihil eminens, nihil lacunosum?”

96 The letter Δ, in the constellation of the triangle; it is named Δελτωτὸν by Aratus, l. 235; also by Manilius, i. 360. We may remark, that, except in this one case, the constellations have no visible resemblance to the objects of which they bear the name.

97 “Locum hunc Plinii de Galaxia, sive Lactea via, interpretantur omnes docti.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 227. It may be remarked, that the word vertex is here used in the sense of the astronomical term zenith, not to signify the pole.

98 De Ling. Lat. lib. iv. p. 7, 8. See also the remarks on the derivation of the word in Gesner, Thes., in loco.

99 “Signifer.” The English term is taken from the Greek word Ζωδιακὸς, derived from Ζῶον; see Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602. The word Zodiacus does not occur in Pliny, nor is it employed by Ptolemy; he names it λοξὸς κύκλος, obliquus circulus; Magn. Const. i. 7, 13, et alibi. It is used by Cicero, but professedly as a Greek term; Divin. ii. 89, and Arati Phænom. l. 317. It occurs in Hyginus, p. 57 et alibi, and in A. Gellius, 13. 9. Neither signifer taken substantively, nor zodiacus occur in Lucretius or in Manilius.

100 The account of the elements, of their nature, difference, and, more especially, the necessity of their being four, are fully discussed by Aristotle in various parts of his works, more particularly in his treatise De Cœlo, lib. iii. cap. 3, 4 and 5, lib. iv. cap. 5, and De Gener. et Cor. lib. ii. cap. 2, 3, 4 and 5. For a judicious summary of the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, I may refer to Stanley’s History of Philosophy; Aristotle, doctrines of, p. 2. l. 7, and to Enfield, i. 764 et seq. For the Epicurean doctrine, see Lucretius, i. 764 et seq.

101 Although the word planeta, as taken from the Greek πλανήτης, is inserted in the title of this chapter, it does not occur in any part of the text. It is not found either in Lucretius, Manilius, or Seneca, nor, I believe, was it used by any of their contemporaries, except Hyginus, p. 76. The planets were generally styled stellæ erraticæ, errantes, or vagæ, sidera palantia, as in Lucretius, ii. 1030, or simply the five stars, as in Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 51, and in Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vii. 24. Pliny, by including the sun and moon, makes the number seven. Aratus calls them πέντ’ ἄστερες, l. 454.

102 “Aër.” “Circumfusa undique est (terra) hac animabili spirabilique natura, cui nomen est aër; Græcum illud quidem, sed perceptum jam tamen usu a nobis;” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 91.

103 “universi cardine.” “Revolutionis, ut aiunt, centro. Idem Plinius, hoc ipso libro, cap. 64, terram cœli cardinem esse dicit;” Alexandre, in Lem. i. 228. On this subject I may refer to Ptolemy, Magn. Const, lib. i. cap. 3, 4, 6. See also Apuleius, near the commencement of his treatise De Mundo.

104 “Sidera.” The word sidus is used, in most cases, for one of the heavenly bodies generally, sometimes for what we term a constellation, a particular assemblage of them, and sometimes specially for an individual star. Manilius employs the word in all these senses, as will appear by the three following passages respectively; the first taken from the opening of his poem,

“Carmine divinas artes, et conscia fati

Sidera....”

The second,

“Hæc igitur texunt æquali sidera tractu

Ignibus in varias cœlum laqueantia formas.” i. 275, 276.

The third

“... pectus, fulgenti sidere clarius;” i. 356.

In the Fasti of Ovid, we have examples of the two latter of these significations:—

“Ex Ariadnæo sidere nosse potes;” v. 316.

“Et canis (Icarium dicunt) quo sidere noto

Tosta sitit tellus;” iv. 939, 940.

Lucretius appears always to employ the term in the general sense. J. Obsequens applies the word sidus to a meteor; “sidus ingens cœlo demissum,” cap. 16. In a subsequent part of this book, chap. 18 et seq., our author more particularly restricts the term sidus to the planets.

105 Cicero remarks concerning them; “quæ (stellæ) falso vocantur errantes;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51.

106 “... vices dierum alternat et noctium, quum sidera præsens occultat, illustrat absens;” Hard. in Lem. i. 230.

107 “ceteris sideribus.” According to Hardouin, ubi supra, “nimium stellis errantibus.” There is, however, nothing in the expression of our author which sanctions this limitation.

108 See Iliad, iii. 277, and Od. xii. 323.

109 It is remarked by Enfield, Hist. of Phil. ii. 131, that “with respect to philosophical opinions, Pliny did not rigidly adhere to any sect.... He reprobates the Epicurean tenet of an infinity of worlds; favours the Pythagorean notion of the harmony of the spheres; speaks of the universe as God, after the manner of the Stoics, and sometimes seems to pass over into the field of the Sceptics. For the most part, however, he leans to the doctrine of Epicurus.”

110 “Si alius est Deus quam sol,” Alexandre in Lem. i. 230. Or rather, if there be any God distinct from the world; for the latter part of the sentence can scarcely apply to the sun. Poinsinet and Ajasson, however, adopt the same opinion with M. Alexandre; they translate the passage, “s’il en est autre que le soleil,” i. 17 and ii. 11.

111 “totus animæ, totus animi;” “Anima est qua vivimus, animus quo sapimus.” Hard. in Lem. i. 230, 231. The distinction between these two words is accurately pointed out by Lucretius, iii. 137 et seq.

112 “fecerunt (Athenienses) Contumeliæ fanum et Impudentiæ.” Cicero, De Leg. ii. 28. See also Bossuet, Discours sur l’Histoire univ. i. 250.

113 The account which Cicero gives us of the opinions of Democritus scarcely agrees with the statement in the text; see De Nat. Deor. i. 120.

114 “In varios divisit Deos numen unicum, quod Plinio cœlum est aut mundus; ejusque singulas partes, aut, ut philosophi aiunt, attributa, separatim coluit;” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 231.

115 “Febrem autem ad minus nocendum, templis celebrant, quorum adhuc unum in Palatio....” Val. Max. ii. 6; see also Ælian, Var. Hist. xii. 11. It is not easy to ascertain the precise meaning of the terms Fanum, Ædes, and Templum, which are employed in this place by Pliny and Val. Maximus. Gesner defines Fanum “area templi et solium, templum vero ædificium;” but this distinction, as he informs us, is not always accurately observed; there appears to be still less distinction between Ædes and Templum; see his Thesaurus in loco, also Bailey’s Facciolati in loco.

116 “Orbona est Orbitalis dea.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 231.

117 “Appositos sibi statim ab ortu custodes credebant, quos viri Genios, Junones fœminæ vocabant.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 232. See Tibullus, 4. 6. 1, and Seneca, Epist. 110, sub init.

118 We may suppose that our author here refers to the popular mythology of the Egyptians; the “fœtidi cibi” are mentioned by Juvenal; “Porrum et cæpe nefas violare et frangere morsu,” xv. 9; and Pliny, in a subsequent part of his work, xix. 32, remarks, “Allium cæpeque inter Deos in jurejurando habet Ægyptus.”

119 See Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 et alibi, for an illustration of these remarks of Pliny.

120 This sentiment is elegantly expressed by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 62, and by Horace, Od. iii. 3. 9 et seq. It does not appear, however, that any of the Romans, except Romulus, were deified, previous to the adulatory period of the Empire.

121 “Planetarum nempe, qui omnes nomina mutuantur a diis.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 234.

122 This remark may be illustrated by the following passage from Cicero, in the first book of his treatise De Nat. Deor. Speaking of the doctrine of Zeno, he says, “neque enim Jovem, neque Junonem, neque Vestam, neque quemquam, qui ita appelletur, in deorum habet numero: sed rebus inanimis, atque mutis, per quandam significationem, hæc docet tributa nomina.” “Idemque (Chrysippus) disputat, æthera esse eum, quem homines Jovem appellant: quique aër per maria manaret, eum esse Neptunum: terramque eam esse, quæ Ceres diceretur: similique ratione persequitur vocabula reliquorum deorum.”

123 The following remarks of Lucretius and of Cicero may serve to illustrate the opinion here expressed by our author:—

“Omnis enim per se Divum natura necesse est Immortali ævo summa cum pace fruatur, Semota ab nostris rebus, sejunctaque longe;” Lucretius, i. 57-59.

“Quod æternum beatumque sit, id nec habere ipsum negotii quidquam, nec exhibere alteri; itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri, quod, quæ talia essent, imbecilla essent omnia.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 45.

124 The author here alludes to the figures of the Egyptian deities that were engraven on rings.

125 His specific office was to execute vengeance on the impious.

126 “sola utramque paginam facit.” The words utraque pagina generally refer to the two sides of the same sheet, but, in this passage, they probably mean the contiguous portions of the same surface.

127 “astroque suo eventu assignat;” the word astrum appears to be synonymous with sidus, generally signifying a single star, and, occasionally, a constellation; as in Manilius, i. 541, 2.

“... quantis bis sena ferantur

Finibus astra....”

It is also used by synecdoche for the heavens, as is the case with the English word stars. See Gesner’s Thesaurus.

128 “Quæ si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis ... et sternutamenta erunt observanda.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 84.

129 “Divus Augustus.” The epithet divus may be regarded as merely a term of court etiquette, because all the Emperors after death were deified ex officio.

130 We learn the exact nature of this ominous accident from Suetonius; “... si mane sibi calceus perperam, et sinister pro dextro induceretur;” Augustus, Cap. 92. From this passage it would appear, that the Roman sandals were made, as we term it, right and left.

131 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the opinions here stated respecting the Deity are taken partly from the tenets of the Epicureans, combined with the Stoical doctrine of Fate. The examples which are adduced to prove the power of fate over the Deity are, for the most part, rather verbal than essential.

132 “affixa mundo.” The peculiar use of the word mundus in this passage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note 86, ch. 1. page 13.

133 We have many references in Pliny to the influence of the stars upon the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was formerly regarded as so important a science, judicial astrology. Ptolemy has drawn up a regular code of it in his “Centum dicta,” or “Centiloquiums.” We have a highly interesting account of the supposed science, its origin, progress, and general principles, in Whewell’s History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 293 et seq. I may also refer to the same work for a sketch of the history of astronomy among the Greeks and the other nations of antiquity.

134 There are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated from this opinion, adopted by the moderns; “his star is set;” “the star of his fortune,” &c.

135 Ovid, when he compares Phaëton to a falling star, remarks, concerning this meteor,—

“Etsi non cecidit, potuit cecidisse videri.” Metam. ii. 322.

136 Manilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous by an operation very similar to the one described in the text; i. 815 et seq. Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Quæst., and in other parts of the same treatise, refers to this subject. His remarks may be worth perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the ancients on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca’s opinions are, on many points, more correct than our author’s.

137 The author probably refers to that part of his work in which he treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.

138 The æra of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before Christ; each olympiad consists of 4 years; the 58th olympiad will therefore include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the “Universal History” consists entirely of a “chronological table,” and we have a useful table of the same kind in Brewster’s Encycl., article “Chronology.”

139 “rerum fores aperuisse ... traditur.” An account of the astronomy of Anaximander is contained in Brewster’s Encycl., article “Astronomy,” p. 587, and in the article “Anaximander” in the supplement to the same work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, that these two accounts do not quite agree in their estimate of his merits; the latter author considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 et seq., and in Enfield, i. 154 et seq.

140 In the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261-7, we have some valuable observations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress of astronomy among the Greeks, and the share which the individuals mentioned in the text respectively had in its advancement; also some interesting remarks on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that “he was the first that discovered the knowledge of the sphere; whence arose the common opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders.” Booth’s trans. p. 115.

141 “nunc relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter cœlum terrasque tractentur.” I have already had occasion to remark upon the various modes in which the author uses the word mundus; by cœlum, in this passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which is conceived to contain the fixed stars. Sphæra, in the preceding sentence, may be supposed to mean the celestial globe.

142 “ac trigesimo anno ad brevissima sedis suæ principia regredi;” I confess myself unable to offer any literal explanation of this passage; nor do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory; see Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by Ajasson “en trente ans il reviens à l’espace minime d’où il est parti.” The period of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by Mrs. Somerville, in her “Mechanism of the Heavens,” and by Sir J. Herschel, in his “Treatise on Astronomy,” are respectively as follows:—

| days. | days.
Mercury | 87·9705 | 87·9692580
Venus | 224·7 | 224·7007869
Earth | 365·2564 | 365·2563612
Mars | 686·99 | 686·9796458
Jupiter | 4332·65 | 4332·5848212
Saturn | 10759·4 | 10759·2198174
Somerville, p. 358. | Herschel, p. 416.

143 “‘mundo;’ hoc est, cœlo inerrantium stellarum.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, ii. 242.

144 Our author supposes, that the spectator has his face directed towards the south, as is the case with the modern observers. We are, however, informed by Hardouin, that this was not the uniform practice among the ancients; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 242, and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 269.

145 The constant revolution refers to the apparent daily motion; the opposite direction to their annual course through the zodiac. Ptolemy gives an account of this double motion in his Magna Constructio, i. 7.

146 For the exact period, according to Somerville and Herschel, see note 142, p. 27.

147 Aristotle informs us, that Mars was also called Hercules or Pyrosis; De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602. See also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Hyginus is said by Hardouin to give the name of Hercules to the planet Mars, but this appears to be an inaccuracy; he describes the planet under its ordinary appellation; lib. ii. p. 62; and ii. 78, 9.

148 Cicero, speaking of the period of Mars, says, “Quatuor et viginti mensibus, sex, ut opinor, diebus minus;” De Nat. Deor. For the exact period, see note 142, p. 27.

149 “Sed ut observatio umbrarum ejus redeat ad notas.” According to the interpretation of Hardouin, “Ad easdem lineas in solari horologio.” Lemaire, ii. 243.

150 This is an example of the mode of computation which we meet with among the ancients, where, in speaking of the period of a revolution, both the time preceding and that following the interval are included.

151 The division of the planets into superior and inferior was not known to Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602, to Plato, Timæus, p. 318, 319, or the older Greek astronomers. It was first made by the Egyptians, and was transferred from them to the Romans. It is one of the points in which our author differs from Aristotle. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 242 et seq. Marcus notices the various points which prove the deficiency of Pliny’s knowledge of astronomy; he particularizes the four following:—his ignorance of the true situation of the constellations; his erroneous opinion respecting the cause of the seasons; his account of the phases of the moon, and of the position of the cardinal points. He appears not to have been aware, that certain astronomical phænomena undergo a regular progression, but supposed that they remained, at the time when he wrote, in the same state as in the age of Hipparchus or the original observers. Columella, when treating on these subjects, describes the phænomena according to the ancient calculation, but he informs us, that he adopts it, because it was the one in popular use, and better known by the farmers (De Re Rust. ix. 14), while Pliny appears not to have been aware of the inaccuracy.

152 “Modo solem antegrediens, modo subsequens.” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 243.

153 It was not known to the earlier writers that Lucifer and Vesper were the same star, differently situated with respect to the Sun. Playfair remarks, that Venus is the only planet mentioned in the sacred writings, and in the most ancient poets, such as Hesiod and Homer; Outlines, ii. 156.

154 There has been much discussion among the commentators respecting the correctness of the figures in the text; according to the æra of the olympiads, the date referred to will be between the years 750 and 754 B.C.; the foundation of Rome is commonly referred to the year 753 B.C. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 278, 9.

155 Aristotle informs us, that it was called either Phosphorus, Juno, or Venus; De Mundo, cap. 2. t. i. p. 602. See also Hyginus, Poet. Astr. lib. iii. p. 76, 7; and Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.

156 It will be scarcely necessary to refer the reader to the well-known commencement of Lucretius’s poem for the illustration of this passage; it is remarkable that Pliny does not refer to this writer.

157 The periodical revolution of Venus is 224·7 days, see note 142, p. 27. Its greatest elongation is 47° 1′; Somerville, § 641. p. 391.

158 According to Aristotle, this planet had the three appellations of Stilbon, Mercury, and Apollo; De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602; see also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Cicero inverts the order of the planets; he places Mercury next to Mars, and says of Venus, that it is “infima quinque errantium, terræque proxima;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 53. Aristotle places the stars in the same order, ubi supra, and he is followed in this by Apuleius, ubi supra; this appears to have been the case with the Stoics generally; see Enfield’s Phil. i. 339.

159 For the periodical revolution of Mercury see note142, p. 27. Its greatest elongation, according to Playfair, p. 160, is 28°. Mrs. Somerville, p. 386, states it to be 28° 8′. Ptolemy supposed it to be 26·5 degrees; Almagest, ix. 7. We learn from Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 246, that there is considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to the greatest elongation of Mercury.

160 Sosigenes was an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, who is said to have assisted Cæsar in the formation of his Kalendar, as our author informs us in a subsequent part of his work, xviii. 25; see also Aikin, Gen. Biog., in loco; Enfield’s Phil. ii. 96; Whewell, p. 210; and Hardouin’s “Index Auctorum,” in Lemaire, i. 213.

161 Concerning the “magnus annus” Cicero remarks, “efficitur cum solis et lunæ et quinque errantium ad eandem inter se comparationem, confectis omnibus spatiis, est facta conversio.” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 281-3.

162 For the various appellations which the moon has received in the ancient and modern languages, and their relation to each other, the reader is referred to the learned remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 283-5.

163 Marcus conceives that the epithet maculosa does not refer to what are called the spots on the moon, but to the circumstance of the edge of the disc being not illuminated when it is near the full; Ajasson, ii. 286. But, from the way in which the word is employed at the end of the chapter, and from the explanation which is given of the cause of the “maculæ,” I think it ought to be referred to the spotted appearance of the face of the moon.

164 “Quum laborare non creditur.” It was a vulgar notion among the ancients, that when the moon is eclipsed, she is suffering from the influence of magicians and enchanters, who are endeavouring to draw her down to the earth, in order to aid them in their superstitious ceremonies. It was conceived that she might be relieved from her sufferings by loud noises of various kinds which should drown the songs of the magicians. Allusion is frequently made to this custom by the ancient poets, as Virgil, Æn. i. 742, Manilius, i. 227, and Juvenal, vi. 444; and the language has been transferred to the moderns, as in Beattie’s Minstrel, ii. 47, “To ease of fancied pangs the labouring moon.”

165 We have some interesting remarks by Marcus respecting Endymion, and also on the share which Solon and Thales had in correcting the lunar observations; Ajasson, ii. 288-290.

166 “Lucem nobis aperuere in hac luce.”

167 “Cardo.”

168 Astronomers describe two different revolutions or periods of the moon; the synodical and the sidereal. The synodical marks the time in which the moon passes from one conjunction with the sun to the next conjunction, or other similar position with respect to the sun. The sidereal period is the time in which the moon returns to the same position with respect to the stars, or in which it makes a complete revolution round the earth. These numbers are, for the synodical period, 29ᵈ 12ʰ 44ᵐ 2·87ˢ, and for the sidereal, 27ᵈ 7ʰ 43ᵐ 11·5ˢ; Herschel, pp. 213, 224.

169 Our author, as Marcus remarks, “a compté par nombres ronds;” Ajasson, ii. 291; the correct number may be found in the preceding note.

170 It was a general opinion among the ancients, and one which was entertained until lately by many of the moderns, that the moon possessed the power of evaporating the water of the ocean. This opinion appears to have been derived, at least in part, from the effect which the moon produces on the tides.

171 “quantum ex sole ipsa concipiat;” from this passage, taken singly, it might be concluded, that the author supposed the quantity of light received by the moon to differ at different times; but the succeeding sentence seems to prove that this is not the case; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 249. Marcus, however, takes a different view of the subject; Ajasson, ii. 291, 292. He had previously pointed out Pliny’s opinion respecting the phases of the moon, as one of the circumstances which indicate his ignorance of astronomy, ut supra, ii. 245, 246.

172 This doctrine is maintained by Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. ii. § 5. p. 701, 702. From the allusion which is made to it by Anacreon, in his 19th ode, we may presume that it was the current opinion among the ancients.

173 I may remark, that Poinsinet, in this passage, substitutes “umbra” for “umbræque,” contrary to the authority of all the MSS., merely because it accords better with his ideas of correct reasoning. Although it may be of little consequence in this particular sentence, yet, as such liberties are not unfrequently taken, I think it necessary to state my opinion, that this mode of proceeding is never to be admitted, and that it has proved a source of serious injury to classical literature. In this account of the astronomical phenomena, as well as in all the other scientific dissertations that occur in our author, my aim has been to transfer into our language the exact sense of the original, without addition or correction. Our object in reading Pliny is not to acquire a knowledge of natural philosophy, which might be better learned from the commonest elementary work of the present day, but to ascertain what were the opinions of the learned on such subjects when Pliny wrote. I make this remark, because I have seldom if ever perused a translation of any classical author, where, on scientific topics, the translator has not endeavoured, more or less, to correct the mistakes of the original, and to adapt his translation to the state of modern science.

174 The terms here employed are respectively interventus, objectio, and interpositus; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology.

175 “metæ et turbini inverso.” The metæ were small pyramids placed at the two extremities of the spina, or central division of the circus: see Montfaucon, v. iii. p. 176; Adam, p. 341.

176 The eclipses of the moon are only visible when the spectator is so situated as to be able to observe the shadow of the earth, or is on that side of the earth which is turned from the sun.

177 “non semper in scrupulis partium congruente siderum motu.” On the term scrupulus Hardouin remarks, “Scrupuli, nodi sunt, in quibus circuli, quos in suo cursu Sol et Luna efficiunt, se mutuo secant.” Lemaire, ii. 251. Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6-11, gives a full and generally correct account of the principal phænomena of eclipses.

178 Marcus conceives that our author must here mean, not the actual, but the apparent size of these bodies; Ajasson, ii. 295; but I do not perceive that the text authorizes this interpretation.

179 I have given the simple translation of the original as it now stands in the MSS.; whether these may have been corrupted, or the author reasoned incorrectly, I do not venture to decide. The commentators have, according to their usual custom, proposed various emendations and explanations, for which I may refer to the note of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 252, with the judicious remarks of Alexandre, and to those of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 295-298, who appear to me to take a correct view of the subject.

180 Alexandre remarks, “Hinc tamen potius distantia quam magnitudo Solis colligi potest.” Lemaire, ii. 252. And the same remark applies to the two next positions of our author.

181 Alexandre remarks on the argument of our author, perhaps a little too severely, “Absurde dictum; nam aliis oritur, aliis occidit, dum aliis est a vertice; quod vel pueri sentiunt.” Lemaire, ii. 253. But we may suppose, that Pliny, in this passage, only meant to say, that as the sun became vertical to each successive part of the equinoctial district, no shadows were formed in it.

182 The commentators have thought it necessary to discuss the question, whether, in this passage, Pliny refers to the Ida of Crete or of Asia Minor. But the discussion is unnecessary, as the statement of the author is equally inapplicable to both of them. Mela appears to refer to this opinion in the following passage, where he is describing the Ida of Asia Minor; “ipse mens ... orientem solem aliter quam in aliis terris solet aspici, ostentat.” lib. i. cap. 18.

183 “Ut dictum est superiore capite, quo Plinius falso contendit Terram esse Luna minorem.” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 253. The words of the text, however, apply equally to the comparative size of the earth and the sun, as of the earth and the moon.

184 “turbo rectus;” literally an upright top.

185 “meta.”

186 This has been pointed out as one of our author’s erroneous opinions on astronomy. The earth is really about 1⁄30 nearer the sun in our winters than in our summers. The greater degree of heat produced by his rays in the latter case depends upon their falling on the surface of the earth less obliquely. This is the principal cause of the different temperatures of the equatorial and polar regions.

187 This eclipse is calculated to have occurred on the 28th of June, 168 B.C.; Brewster’s Encyc. “Chronology,” p. 415, 424. We have an account of this transaction in Livy, xliv. 37, and in Plutarch, Life of Paulus Æmilius, Langhorne’s trans. ii. 279; he however does not mention the name of Gallus. See also Val. Maximus, viii. 11. 1, and Quintilian, i. 10. Val. Maximus does not say that Gallus predicted the eclipse, but explained the cause of it when it had occurred; and the same statement is made by Cicero, De Repub. i. 15. For an account of Sulpicius, see Hardouin’s Index auctorum, Lemaire, i. 214.

188 An account of this event is given by Herodotus, Clio, § 74. There has been the same kind of discussion among the commentators, respecting the dates in the text, as was noticed above, note 154, p. 29: see the remarks of Brotier and of Marcus in Lemaire and Ajasson, in loco. Astronomers have calculated that the eclipse took place May 28th, 585 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, pp. 414, 419.

189 Hipparchus is generally regarded as the first astronomer who prosecuted the science in a regular and systematic manner. See Whewell, C. 3. p. 169 et seq., 177-179. He is supposed to have made his observations between the years 160 and 125 B.C. He made a catalogue of the fixed stars, which is preserved in Ptolemy’s Magn. Const. The only work of his now extant is his commentary on Aratus; it is contained in Petau’s Uranologie. We find, among the ancients, many traces of their acquaintance with the period of 600 years, or what is termed the great year, when the solar and lunar phænomena recur precisely at the same points. Cassini, Mem. Acad., and Bailly, Hist. Anc. Astron., have shown that there is an actual foundation for this opinion. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 302, 303.

190 Seneca, the tragedian, refers to this superstitious opinion in some beautiful verses, which are given to the chorus at the termination of the fourth act of the Thyestes.

191 We have an account of this event in Thucydides, Smith’s trans. ii. 244, and in Plutarch, Langhorne’s trans. iii. 406. It is calculated to have happened Aug. 27th, 413 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, p. 415, 421.

192 The elegant lines of Ovid, in his Fasti, i. 297 et seq., express the same sentiment: “Felices animos, quibus hoc cognoscere primis,” &c.

193 I have already remarked upon the use of this term as applied to the eclipses of the moon in note 164, p. 31.

194 According to the remarks of Marcus, it appears probable that this sol-lunar period, as it has been termed, was discovered by the Chaldeans; Ajasson, ii. 306, 307.

195 “coitus.”

196 “Hoc enim periodo (223 mensium) plerumque redeunt eclipses, non multum differentes, denis tamen gradibus zodiaci antecedentes;” Kepler, as quoted by Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 238.

197 The terms “sub terra” and “superne” are interpreted, by most of the commentators, below and above the horizon respectively; see Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 307.

198 “globo terræ obstante convexitatibus mundi.” The term convexus, as applied to the heavens, or visible firmament, simply signifies arched; not opposed to concave, like the English word convex.

199 This point is discussed by Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6; “De distantia eclipticorum mensium.” See also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 260, 261; and of Poinsinet, i. 67.

200 These are styled horizontal eclipses; they depend on the refractive power of the atmosphere, causing the sun to be visible above the horizon, although it is actually below it. Brotier states, that eclipses of this description occurred on the 17th July, 1590, on the 30th November, 1648, and on the 16th January, 1660; Lemaire, ii. 260.

201 This is supposed to have been in the year 72 of our æra, when it is said that the sun was eclipsed, in Italy, on the 8th, and the moon on the 22nd of February; see Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 261.

202 In a subsequent part of the work, xviii. 75, the author gives a different rate of increase, viz. 51^1⁄2 minutes; neither of these numbers is correct; the mean rate of increase being, according to Alexandre, about 54′ or 55′; Lemaire, ii. 261, 262. See also Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 311-14.

203 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the effect, as here stated, has no connexion with the supposed cause.

204 “luminum canonica.”

205 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

206 They are then said, in astronomical language, to rise heliacally.

207 In the last chapter this distance was stated to be 7 degrees; see the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 263.

208 “radiorum ejus contactu reguntur.” The doctrine of the ancient astronomers was, that the motions of the planets are always governed by the rays of the sun, according to its position, attracting or repelling them.

209 A planet appears to be stationary, i. e. to be referred to the same point of the zodiac, when it is so situated with respect to the earth, that a straight line passing through the two bodies forms a tangent to the smaller orbit. The apparent motion of the planets, sometimes direct and at other times retrograde, with their stationary positions, is occasioned by the earth and the planets moving in concentric orbits, with different velocities. One hundred and twenty degrees is the mean distance at which the three superior planets become stationary. We have an elaborate dissertation by Marcus, on the unequal velocities of the planets, and on their stations and retrogradations, as well according to the system of Aristotle as to that of Copernicus; Ajasson, ii. 316 et seq. He remarks, and, I conceive, with justice, “... ce n’est pas dans les traités d’astronomie de nos savans que l’on doit puiser les détails destinés à éclaircir le texte des chapitres xii, xiii, xiv et xv du second livre de Pline.... Je ne dis rien des commentaires de Poinsinet, d’Hardouin et d’autres savans peu versés en matière d’astronomie, qui ont fait dire à Pline les plus grandes absurdités.”

210 “Occasus planetæ vespertinus dicitur, quo die desinit post occasum solis supra horizontem oculis se præbere manifestum;” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 265. It is then said to set heliacally.

211 The interpretation of this passage has given rise to much discussion among the commentators and translators; I may refer the reader to the remarks of Poinsinet, i. 70, 71; of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 266; and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 328. I conceive the meaning of the author to be, that while the other planets become stationary, when at 120 degrees from the sun, Mars becomes so at 90 degrees, being detained by the rays, which act upon him more powerfully, in consequence of his being nearer to their source.

212 I may refer to the remarks of Marcus on the respective distances from the sun at which Venus and Mercury become stationary, and when they attain their greatest elongations; Ajasson, ii. 328, 329. According to Ptolemy, Magn. Constr. lib. viii. cap. 7, the evening setting of Venus is at 5° 40′ from the sun, and that of Mercury at 11° 30′.

213 “Ἁψὶς, ligneus rotæ circulus, ab ἅπτω necto;” Hederic in loco. The term is employed in a somewhat different sense by the modern astronomers, to signify the point in the orbit of a planet, when it is either at the greatest or the least distance from the earth, or the body about which it revolves; the former being termed the apogee, aphelion, or the higher apsis; the latter the perigee, perhelion, or lower apsis; Jennings on the Globes, pp. 64, 65.

214 “mundo.”

215 “ratione circini semper indubitata.”

216 In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes these points are continually advancing from W. to E., and are now about 30 degrees from the situation they were in when the observations were first made by the modern astronomers.

217 Our author here probably refers to the motions of the planets through their epicycles or secondary circles, the centres of which were supposed to be in the peripheries of the primary circles. See Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 270.

218 It is to this visible appearance of convexity in the heavens that Ovid refers in the story of Phaëton, where he is describing the daily path of the sun; Metam. ii. 63-67.

219 “quam quod illi subjacet;” under this designation the author obviously meant to include the temperate zones, although it technically applies only to the part between the tropics. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that modern discoveries have shown that this opinion respecting the Arctic zone is not strictly correct.

220 The breadth of the zodiac, which was limited by the ancients to 12 degrees, has been extended by the modern astronomers to 18, and would require to be much farther extended to include the newly discovered planet. Herschel’s Astronomy, § 254.

221 There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning of the terms employed by our author in describing the course of the planet Mercury through the zodiac; “medio ejus,” “supra,” and “infra.” Hardouin’s comment is as follows: “Duas zodiaci partes seu gradus pererrat, quum ipse per medium incedit signiferum: supra, quum deflectit ad Aquilonem, per quatuor alias ejusdem partes vagatur: infra, quum descendit ad Austrum, discedit duabus.” Lemaire, ii. 271, 272. But Marcus has shown that the opinion of Hardouin is inadmissible and inconsistent with the facts; Ajasson, ii. 338-341. He proposes one, which he conceives to be more correct, but we may probably be led to the conclusion, that the imperfect knowledge and incorrect opinions of our author on these subjects must render it impossible to afford an adequate explanation.

222 “flexuoso draconum meatu;” Poinsinet remarks, “Les Grecs ... appellaient dragons les bracelets, les hausse-cols, les chainettes, et généralement tout ce qui avait une figure armillaire;” i. 79, 80.

223 As this remark appears to contradict what was said in the last sentence respecting the sun, we may suspect some error in the text; see Poinsinet, Alexandre, and Marcus, in loco.

224 The following comparative statement is given by Alexandre of the geocentric latitudes of the planets, as assigned by Pliny, and as laid down by the moderns. Lemaire, ii. 273:—

| Pliny. | Moderns.
Venus | 8° | 9° 22′
Moon | 6 | 6    0
Mercury | 5 | 6  54
Mars | 2   0 | 1  51
Jupiter | 1 30 | 1  30
Saturn | 1 (or 2°) | 2  30

225 It appears from the remark at the end of this chapter, that this explanation applies to the superior planets alone.

226 It is not easy, as Marcus observes, Ajasson, ii. 341, 345, to comprehend the exact meaning of this passage, or to reconcile it with the other parts of our author’s theory.

227 “Ecliptica,” called by the moderns the nodes; i. e. the two points where the orbits of the planets cut the ecliptic. See the remarks of Marcus on this term; Ajasson, ii. 345, 346.

228 We may presume that our author here refers to the apparent motion of the planets, not to their actual acceleration or retardation.

229 The editors have differed in the reading of this passage; I have followed that of Lemaire.

230 “incipit detrahi numerus.” According to the explanation of Alexandre, “numerus nempe partium quas certo temporis intervallo emetiuntur.” Lemaire, ii. 275. Marcus remarks in this place, “Dans tout ce chapitre et dans le suivant, Pline a placé dans une correlation de causité, tout ce qu’il croit arriver en même temps; mais il n’a pas prouvé par-là que les phenomènes célestes qui sont contemporains sont engendrés les uns par les autres.” Ajasson, ii. 349.

231 The hypothesis of Pliny appears to be, that the planets are affected by the rays of the sun, and that according to the angle at which they receive the impulse, they are either accelerated or retarded in their course.

232 “ex priore triquetro.”

233 Alexandre supposes, as I conceive justly, that our author, in this passage, only refers to the writings of his own countrymen; Lemaire, ii. 276.

234 According to Ptolemy, these numbers are respectively 47° 51′ and 24° 3′; the modern astronomers have ascertained them to be 48° and 29°. The least elongations of the planets are, according to Ptolemy, 44° 7′ and 18° 50′, and according to the observations of the moderns, 45° and 16°; Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 354.

235 I have not translated the clause, “quum sint diversæ stelæ,” as, according to Hardouin, it is not found “in probatissimis codd.,” and appears to have little connexion with the other parts of the sentence; it is omitted by Valpy and Lemaire, but is retained by Poinsinet and Ajasson.

236 When these inferior planets have arrived at a certain apparent distance from the sun, they are come to the extent of their orbits, as seen from the earth.

237 “Quum ad illam Solis distantiam pervenerunt, ultra procedere non possunt, deficiente circuli longitudine, id est, amplitudine.” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 277.

238 The transits of the inferior planets had not been observed by the ancients.

239 “utroque modo;” “latitudine et altitudine;” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 279.

240 “Catholica.”

241 “... quæ (stella Martis) ut maxime excentrica volvitur, motus etiam maxime dissonos habere diu visa est....;” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 180.

242 “... qui numerus sexangulas mundi efficit formas.”

243 Lynceus was one of the Argonauts and was celebrated for the acuteness of his vision; Val. Flaccus, i. 462 et seq.

244 The relative situation of these astronomical phænomena has changed since the time of Pliny, in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes. For an illustration and explanation of the various statements in this chapter I may refer to the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 368-370.

245 Ptolemy’s account of the colours of the planets is nearly similar to that of our author; “Candidus color Jovialis est, rutilus Martius, flavus Veneris, varius Mercurii;” De Jur. Astrol. ii. 9.

246 This effect cannot be produced by any of the planets, except perhaps, to a certain extent, by Venus.

247 “mundi.”

248 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the method which Pliny employs to explain the different phases of the moon betrays his ignorance, not only of the cause of these particular phænomena, but of the general principles which affect the appearance of the heavenly bodies.

249 “seminani ambitur orbe.” According to the interpretation of Hardouin, “Orbe non perfecto et absoluto;” “major dimidia, minor plena;” Lemaire, ii. 284.

250 As Alexandre justly remarks, our author refers here to the aspects only of the planets, not to their phases; ii. 284.

251 “centrum terræ;” the equator, the part equally distant from the two poles or extremities.

252 It may be remarked, that the equinoxes did not actually take place at this period in the points mentioned by Pliny, but in the 28th degrees of Pisces and Virgo respectively; he appears to have conformed to the popular opinion, as we may learn from Columella, lib. ix. cap. 14. The degrees mentioned above were those fixed by the Greek astronomers who formed the celestial sphere, and which was about 138 years before the Christian æra. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 246 & 373, 374.

253 The same remark applies to this as to the former observation.

254 “siderum.”

255 The hypothesis of the author is, that the excess of moisture in the orbit of Saturn, and the excess of heat in that of Mars, unite in the orbit of Jupiter and are discharged in the form of thunder.

256 Alexandre remarks, that Pliny mentions this, not as his own opinion, but that of many persons; for, in chap. 21, he attempts to prove mathematically, that the moon is situated at an equal distance between the sun and the earth; Lemaire, ii. 286.

257 Marcus remarks upon the inconsistency between the account here given of Pythagoras’s opinion, and what is generally supposed to have been his theory of the planetary system, according to which the sun, and not the earth, is placed in the centre; Enfield’s Philosophy, i. 288, 289. Yet we find that Plato, and many others among the ancients, give us the same account of Pythagoras’s doctrine of the respective distances of the heavenly bodies; Ajasson, ii. 374. Plato in his Timæus, 9. p. 312-315, details the complicated arrangement which he supposes to constitute the proportionate distances of the planetary bodies.

258 Sulpicius has already been mentioned, in the ninth chapter of this book, as being the first among the Romans who gave a popular explanation of the cause of eclipses.

259 “Διὰ πασῶν, omnibus tonis contextam harmoniam.” Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 287.

260 These appellations appear to have originated from different nations having assumed different notes as the foundation or commencement of their musical scale. The Abbé Barthelemi informs us, that “the Dorians executed the same air a tone lower than the Phrygians, and the latter a tone still higher than the Lydians; hence the denomination of the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian modes.” It appears to have been a general practice to employ the lowest modes for the slowest airs; Anacharsis’s Travels, iii. 73, 74.

261 Hence the passus will be equal to 5 Roman feet. If we estimate the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches, we shall have the miliare of 8 stadia equal to 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than an English statute mile. See Adam’s Roman Antiquities, p. 503; also the articles Miliare and Pes in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; and for the varieties of the stadium, as employed at different periods and in different countries, see the article Stadium. The stadium which Herodotus employed in measurements of Babylon has been supposed to consist of 490 English feet, while that of Xenophon and Strabo has been estimated at 505; see Ed. Rev. xlviii. 190. The Abbé Barthelemi supposes the stadium to be equal to 604 English feet; Anach. Travels, vii. 284.

262 There appears to have been two individuals of this name, who have been confounded with each other; the one referred to by Pliny was an astronomer of Alexandria, who flourished about 260 years B.C.; the other was a native of Apamea, a stoic philosopher, who lived about two centuries later; see Aikin’s Biog. in loco; also Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, Lemaire, i. 209.

263 The terms in the original are respectively nubila and nubes. The lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately discriminated between these two words.

264 The words in the text are “vicies centum millia” and “quinquies millia.”

265 Archimedes estimated that the diameter of a circle is to its circumference as 1 to 3·1416; Hutton’s Dict. in loco. Ptolemy states it to be precisely as 1 to 3; Magn. Const. i. 12.

266 The author’s reasoning is founded upon the supposition of the length of the sun’s path round the earth being twelve times greater than that of the moon’s; the orbit therefore would be twelve times greater and the radius in the same proportion.

267 “Non inter Lunam et Saturnum, sed inter Lunam et cœlum affixarum stellarum, medium esse Solem modo dixerat. Quam parum sui meminit!” Alexandre in Lem. i. 291.

268 “Qui computandi modus plurimum habet verecundiæ et modestiæ, quum ibi sistit, nec ulterius progreditur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 292.

269 “... ad Saturni circulum addito Signiferi ipsius intervallo, ...”

270 We may remark, that our author, for the most part, adopts the opinions of Aristotle respecting comets and meteors of all kinds, while he pays but little attention to those of his contemporary Seneca, which however, on some points, would appear to be more correct. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 244. Under the title of comets he includes, not only those bodies which are permanent and move in regular orbits, but such as are transient, and are produced from various causes, the nature of which is not well understood. See Aristotle, Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6, 7, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. lib. 7, and Manilius, i. 807 et seq.

271 a κόμη, coma.

272 a πωγωνίος, barbatus. Most of these terms are employed by Aristotle and by Seneca.

273 ab ἀκόντιον, jaculum.

274 a ξίφος, ensis.

275 a δίσκος, orbis.

276 a πίθος, dolium. Seneca describes this species as “magnitudo vasti rotundique ignis dolio similis;” Nat. Quæst. lib. i. § 14. p. 964.

277 a κέρας, cornu.

278 a λαμπὰς, fax.

279 ab ἵππος, equus. Seneca mentions the fax, the jaculum, and the lampas among the prodigies that preceded the civil wars; Phars. i. 528 et seq.

280 Alexandre remarks, that these dates do not correspond, and adds, “Desperandum est de Pliniana chronologia; nec satis interdum scio, utrum librarios, an scriptorem ipsum incusem,....” Lemaire, i. 295. According to the most approved modern chronology, the middle of the 109th olympiad corresponds to the 211th year of the City.

281 “errantium modo;” this may mean, that they move in orbits like those of the planets and exhibit the same phænomena, or simply that they change their situation with respect to the fixed stars.

282 Seneca remarks on this point, “Placet igitur nostris (Stoicis) cometas ... denso aëri creari. Ideo circa Septemtrionem frequentissime apparent, quia illic plurimi est aëris frigor.” Quæst. Nat. i. 7. Aristotle, on the contrary, remarks that comets are less frequently produced in the northern part of the heavens; Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6. p. 535.

283 Ubi supra.

284 See Aristotle, ut supra, p. 537.

285 “Videtur is non cometes fuisse, sed meteorus quidam ignis;” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 296.

286 Virgil, Geor. i. 488 et seq., Manilius, i. 904 et seq., and Lucan, i. 526 et seq., all speak of the comets and meteors that were observed previous to the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar. In reference to the existence of a comet about the time of Julius Cæsar, Playfair remarks, that Halley supposed the great comet of 1680 to have been the same that appeared in the year 44 A.C., and again in Justinian’s time, 521 P.C., and also in 1106; Elem. Nat. Phil. ii. 197, 198. See Ptolemy’s Cent. Dict. no. 100, for the opinion, that comets presented an omen especially unfavourable to kings. To this opinion the following passage in the Paradise Lost obviously refers; “And with fear of change perplexes monarchs.”

287 Seneca refers to the four comets that were seen, after the death of Cæsar, in the time of Augustus, of Claudius, and of Nero; Quæst. Nat. i. 7. Suetonius mentions the comet which appeared previous to the death of Claudius, cap. 46, and Tacitus that before the death of Nero, Ann. xiv. 22.

288 “A Julio Cæsare. Is enim paulo ante obitum collegium his ludis faciendis instituerat, confecto Veneris templo;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299. Jul. Obsequens refers to a “stella crinita,” which appeared during the celebration of these games, cap. 128.

289 “Hoc est, hora fere integra ante solis occasum;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299.

290 All these circumstances are detailed by Suetonius, in Julio, § 88. p. 178.

291 “terris.”

292 Seneca remarks, “... quidam nullos esse cometas existimant, sed species illorum per repercussionem vicinorum siderum,... Quidam aiunt esse quidem, sed habere cursus suos et post certa lustra in conspectum mortalium exire.” He concludes by observing, “Veniet tempus, quo ista quæ nunc latent, in lucem dies extrahat, et longioris diei diligentia;” Nat. Quæst. lib. 7. § 19. p. 807.

293 For some account of Hipparchus, see note 189, p. 37.

294 Nothing is known respecting the nature of these instruments, nor have we any means of forming even a conjecture upon the subject.

295 The terms “faces,” “lampades,” “bolides,” and “trabes,” literally torches, lamps, darts, and beams, which are employed to express different kinds of meteors, have no corresponding words in English which would correctly designate them.

296 From this account it would appear, that the “fax” was what we term a falling star. “Meteora ista, super cervices nostras transeuntia, diversaque a stellis labentibus, modo aërolithis ascribenda sunt, modo vaporibus incensis aut electrica vi prognata videntur, et quamvis frequentissime recurrant, explicatione adhuc incerta indigent.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 302.

297 Seneca refers to this meteor; “Vidimus non semel flammam ingenti pilæ specie, quæ tamen in ipso cursu suo dissipata est ... nec Germanici mors sine tali demonstratione fuit;” Nat. Quæst, lib. i. cap. 1. p. 683.

298 This meteor is mentioned by Dion Cassius, lib. xlv. p. 278, but is described by him as a lampas.

299 We may presume that the trabes are, for the most part, to be referred to the aurora borealis. The chasma and the appearances described in the twenty-seventh chapter are probably varieties of this meteor. On these phænomena we have the following remarks by Seneca: “Lucem in aëre, seu quamdam albedinem, angustam quidem, sed oblongam, de noctu quandoque visam, sereno cœlo, si parallelo situ sit, Trabem vocant; si perpendiculari, Columnam; si, cum cuspide Bolida, sive Jaculum.” Nat. Quæst. vii. 4, and again, vii. 5, “Trabes autem non transcurrunt nec prætervolant, ut faces, sed commorantur, et in eadem parte cœli collucent.”

300 Seneca describes this meteor, ubi supra, i. 14. “Sunt chasmata, cum aliquando cœli spatium discedit, et flammam dehiscens velut in abdito ostentat. Colores quoque horum omnium plurimi sunt. Quidam ruboris acerrimi, quidam evanidæ et levis flammæ, quidam candidæ lucis, quidam micantes, quidam æquabiliter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis fulvi.” Aristotle’s account of chasmata is contained in his Meteor. lib. i. cap. 5. p. 534.

301 The meteor here referred to is probably a peculiar form of the aurora borealis, which occasionally assumes a red colour. See the remarks of Fouché, in Ajasson, i. 382.

302 The doctrine of the author appears to be, that the prodigies are not the cause, but only the indication of the events which succeed them. This doctrine is referred to by Seneca; “Videbimus an certus omnium rerum ordo ducatur, et alia aliis ita complexa sint, ut quod antecedit, aut causa sit sequentium aut signum.” Nat. Quæst. i. 1.

303 It would appear that, in this passage, two phænomena are confounded together; certain brilliant stars, as, for example, Venus, which have been occasionally seen in the day-time, and the formation of different kinds of halos, depending on certain states of the atmosphere, which affect its transparency.

304 This occurrence is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 2; he enters into a detailed explanation of the cause; also by V. Paterculus, ii. 59, and by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 128. We can scarcely doubt of the reality of the occurrence, as these authors would not have ventured to relate what, if not true, might have been so easily contradicted.

305 The term here employed is “arcus,” which is a portion only of a circle or “orbis.” But if we suppose that the sun was near the horizon, a portion only of the halo would be visible, or the condition of the atmosphere adapted for forming the halo might exist in one part only, so that a portion of the halo only would be obscured.

306 The dimness or paleness of the sun, which is stated by various writers to have occurred at the time of Cæsar’s death, it is unnecessary to remark, was a phænomenon totally different from an eclipse, and depending on a totally different cause.

307 Aristotle, Meteor. lib. iii. cap. 2. p. 575, cap. 6. p. 582, 583, and Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. i. § 11, describe these appearances under the title which has been retained by the moderns of παρήλια. Aristotle remarks on their cause as depending on the refraction (ἀνάκλασις) of the sun’s rays. He extends the remark to the production of halos (ἅλως) and the rainbow, ubi supra.

308 This occurrence is referred to by Livy, xli. 21.

309 This meteor has been named παρασελήνη; they are supposed to depend upon the same cause with the Parhelia. A phænomenon of this description is mentioned by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 92, and by Plutarch, in Marcellus, ii. 360. In Shakspeare’s King John the death of Prince Arthur is said to have been followed by the ominous appearance of five moons.

310 This phænomenon must be referred to the aurora borealis. See Livy, xxviii. 11. and xxix. 14.

311 “clypei.”

312 Probably an aërolite. Jul. Obsequens describes a meteor as “orbis clypei similis,” which was seen to pass from west to east, cap. 105.

313 “ceu nubilo die.”

314 It would be difficult to reconcile this phænomenon with any acknowledged atmospherical phenomenon.

315 Perhaps the phænomena here alluded to ought to be referred to some electric action; but they are stated too generally to admit of our forming more than a conjecture on the subject. Virgil refers to the occurrence of storms of wind after the appearance of a falling star; Geor. i. 265-6.

316 These phænomena are admitted to be electrical; they are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 1. This appearance is noticed as of frequent occurrence in the Mediterranean, where it is named the fire of St. Elmo; see Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 311, and Fouché in Ajasson, ii. 382.

317 Perhaps this opinion may be maintained on the principle, that, when there is a single luminous appearance only, it depends upon the discharge of a quantity of electrical fluid in a condensed state; its effects are, in this case, those that would follow from a stroke of lightning.

318 This is said by Livy to have occurred to Servius Tullius while he was a child; lib. i. cap. 39; and by Virgil to Ascanius, Æn. ii. 632-5.

319 “Ut circumagendo balistæ vel fundæ impetus augetur.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 313.

320 “sed assidue rapta (natura) convolvitur, et circa terram immenso rerum causas globo ostendit, subinde per nubes cœlum aliud obtexens.” On the words “immenso globo,” Alexandre has the following comment: “Immensis cœli fornicibus appicta sidera, dum circumvolvitur, terris ostendit;” and on the words “cœlum aliud,” “obductæ scilicet nubes falsum quasi cœlum vero prætexunt.” Lemaire, i. 313.

321 The author probably means to speak of all the atmospheric phænomena that have been mentioned above.

322 Marcus has made some remarks on this subject which may be read with advantage; Ajasson, ii. 245-6.

323 The diminutive of Sus.

324 Ab ὕω, pluo.

325 The Hædi were in the constellation Auriga.

326 We have the same account of the Oryx in Ælian, lib. vii. cap. 8.

327 Our author again refers to this opinion, viii. 63, and it was generally adopted by the ancients; but it appears to be entirely unfounded.

328 “cum tempestatibus confici sidus intelligimus.”

329 “afflantur.” On this term Hardouin remarks, “Siderantur. Sideratio morbi genus est, partem aliquam corporis, ipsumque sæpe totum corpus percutientis subito: quod quum repentino eveniat impetu, e cœlo vi quadam sideris evenire putatur.” Lemaire, i. 317.

330 Cicero alludes to these opinions in his treatise De Divin. ii. 33; see also Aul. Gellius, ix. 7.

331 The heliotropium of the moderns has not the property here assigned to it, and it may be doubted whether it exists in any plant, except in a very slight and imperfect degree: the subject will be considered more fully in a subsequent part of the work, xxii. 29, where the author gives a more particular account of the heliotrope.

332 “conchyliorum;” this term appears to have been specifically applied to the animal from which the Tyrian dye was procured.

333 “soricum fibras;” Alexandre remarks on these words, “fibras jecoris intellige, id est, lobos infimos ...;” Lemaire, i. 318; but I do not see any ground for this interpretation.

334 It does not appear from what source our author derived this number; it is considerably greater than that stated by Ptolemy and the older astronomers. See the remarks of Hardouin and of Brotier; Lemaire. i. 319.

335 The Vergiliæ or Pleiades are not in the tail of the Bull, according to the celestial atlas of the moderns.

336 “Septemtriones.”

337 The doctrine of Aristotle on the nature and formation of mists and clouds is contained in his treatises De Meteor. lib. i. cap. 9. p. 540, and De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. He employs the terms ἀτμὶς, νέφος, and νεφέλη, which are translated vapor, nubes and nebula, respectively. The distinction, however, between the two latter does not appear very clearly marked either in the Greek or the Latin, the two Greek words being indiscriminately applied to either of the Latin terms.

338 It is doubtful how far this statement is correct; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lem. i. 320.

339 The words in the original are respectively fulmen and fulgetrum; Seneca makes a similar distinction between fulmen and fulguratio: “Fulguratio est late ignis explicitus; fulmen est coactus ignis et impetu jactus.” Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. cap. 16. p. 706.

340 “Præsertim ex tribus superioribus planetis, uti dictum est, cap. 18.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 322.

341 Our author’s opinion respecting the origin of winds nearly agrees with that of Aristotle; “nihil ut aliud ventus (ἄνεμος) sit, nisi aër multus fluctuans et compressus, qui etiam spiritus (πνεῦμα) appellatur;” De Meteor. This treatise contains a full account of the phænomena of winds. Seneca also remarks, “Ventus est aër fluens;” Nat. Quæst. lib. 3 & 5.

342 Aristotle informs us, that the winds termed apogæi (ἀπόγαιοι) proceed from a marshy and moist soil; De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. For the origin and meaning of the terms here applied to the winds, see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 323.

343 This is mentioned by Pomp. Mela.

344 “In domibus etiam multis manu facta inclusa opacitate conceptacula....” Some of the MSS. have madefacta for manu facta, and this reading has been adopted by Lemaire; but nearly all the editors, as Dalechamps, Laët, Grovonius, Poincinet and Ajasson, retain the former word.

345 The terms in the original are “flatus” and “ventus.”

346 “illos (flatus) statos atque perspirantes.”

347 “qui non aura, non procella, sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa venti sunt.” This passage cannot be translated into English, from our language not possessing the technical distinction of genders, as depending on the termination of the substantives.

348 “Septem nimirum errantibus.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 306.

349 In his account and nomenclature of the winds, Pliny has, for the most part, followed Aristotle, Meteor. lib. ii. cap. 4. pp. 558-560, and cap. 6. pp. 563-565. The description of the different winds by Seneca is not very different, but where it does not coincide with Aristotle’s, our author has generally preferred the former; see Nat. Quæst. lib. 5. We have an account of the different winds, as prevailing at particular seasons, in Ptolemy, De Judiciis Astrol. 1. 9. For the nomenclature and directions of the winds, we may refer to the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 328 et seq.

350 Odyss. v. 295, 296.

351 In giving names to the different winds, the author designates the points of the compass whence they proceed, by the place where the sun rises or sets, at the different periods of the year. The following are the terms which he employs:—“Oriens æquinoctialis,” the place where the sun rises at the equinox, i. e. the East. “Oriens brumalis,” where he rises on the shortest day, the S.E. “Occasus brumalis,” where he sets on the shortest day, the S.W. “Occasus æquinoctialis,” where he sets at the equinox, the W. “Occasus solstitialis,” where he sets on the longest day, the N.W. “Exortus solstitialis,” where he rises on the longest day, the N.E. “Inter septemtrionem et occasum solstitialem,” between N. and N.W., N.N.W. “Inter aquilonem et exortum æquinoctialem,” between N. and N.E., N.N.E. “Inter ortum brumalem et meridiem,” between S. and S.E., S.S.E. “Inter meridiem et hybernum occidentem,” between S. and S.W., S.S.W.

352 “Quod sub sole nasci videtur.”

353 This name was probably derived from the town Vulturnum in Campania.

354 Seneca informs us, that what the Latins name Subsolanus, is named by the Greeks Ἀφηλιώτης; Quæst. Nat. lib. 5. § 16. p. 764.

355 “quia favet rebus nascentibus.”

356 “... semper spirantes frigora Cauri.” Virgil, Geor. iii. 356.

357 The eight winds here mentioned will bear the following relation to our nomenclature: Septemtrio, N.; Aquilo, N.E.; Subsolanus, E.; Vulturnus, S.E.; Auster, S.; Africus, N.W.; Favonius, W.; and Corus, N.W.

358 The four winds here mentioned, added to eight others, making, in the whole, twelve, will give us the following card:—

N. Septemtrio.
N.N.E. Boreas or Aquilo.
E.N.E. Cæcias.
E. Apeliotes or Subsolanus.
E.S.E. Eurus or Vulturnus.
S.S.E. Euronotus or Phœnices.
S. Notos or Auster.
S.S.W. Libonotos.
W.S.W. Libs or Africus.
W. Zephyrus or Favonius.
W.N.W. Argestes or Corus.
N.N.W. Thrascias.

We are informed by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 330, that there is an ancient dial plate in the Vatican, consisting of twelve sides, in which the names of the twelve winds are given both in Greek and in Latin. They differ somewhat from those given above, both absolutely and relatively; they are as follows:—

Ἀπαρκτίας, Septemtrio.
Βορέας, Aquilo.
Καικίας, Vulturnus.
Ἀφηλιώτης, Solanus.
Εὖρος, Eurus.
Εὐρόνοτος, Euronotus.
Νότος, Auster.
Λιβόνοτος, Austroafricus.
Λὶψ, Africus.
Ζέφυρος, Zephyrus.
Ἰάπυξ, Corus.
Θρασκίας, Circius.

359 This wind must have been N.N.W.; it is mentioned by Strabo, iv. 182; A. Gellius, ii. 22; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 17; and again by our author, xvii. 2.

360 We may learn the opinions of the Romans on the subject of this chapter from Columella, xi. 2.

361 corresponding to the 8th day of the month.

362 ... lustro sequenti ...; “tribus annis sequentibus.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 334.

363 corresponding to the 22nd of February.

364 a χελιδὼν, hirundo.

365 This will be either on March 2nd or on February 26th, according as we reckon from December the 21st, the real solstitial day, or the 17th, when, according to the Roman calendar, the sun is said to enter Capricorn.

366 “quasi Avicularem dixeris.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 334.

367 Corresponding to the 10th of May.

368 According to the Roman calendar, this corresponds to the 20th July, but, according to the text, to the 17th. Columella says, that the sun enters Leo on the 13th of the Calends of August; xi. 2.

369 “quasi præcursores;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 335. Cicero refers to these winds in one of his letters to Atticus; xiv. 6.

370 ἐτησίαι, ab ἔτος, annus.

371 This will be on the 13th of September, as, according to our author, xviii. 24, the equinox is on the 24th.

372 This corresponds to the 11th of November; forty-four days before this will be the 29th of September.

373 Or Halcyonides. This topic is considered more at length in a subsequent part of the work; x. 47.

374 The author, as it appears, portions out the whole of the year into fourteen periods, during most of which certain winds are said to blow, or, at least, to be decidedly prevalent. Although the winds of Italy are less irregular than those of England, Pliny has considerably exaggerated the real fact.

375 On this subject the reader may peruse the remarks of Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 18, written in his style of flowery declamation.

376 The greatest part of the remarks on the nature of the winds, in this chapter, would appear to be taken from Aristotle’s Treatise De Meteor., and it may be stated generally, that our author has formed his opinions more upon those of the Greek writers than upon actual observation.

377 9 A.M.

378 In the last chapter Ornithias is said to be a west wind.

379 This obviously depends upon the geographical situation of the northern parts of Africa, to which the observation more particularly applies, with respect to the central part of the Continent and the Mediterranean. See the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 340.

380 The influence of the fourth day of the moon is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 432 et seq. “Sin ortu quarto,” &c.

381 This refers to the genders of the names of the winds, analogous to the remark in note 346, p. 71.

382 Eudoxus was a native of Cnidus, distinguished for his knowledge in astrology and science generally; he was a pupil of Plato, and is referred to by many of the ancients; see Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 187, and Enfield’s Hist. of Phil. i. 412, with the very copious list of references.

383 “flatus repentini.”

384 Cicero refers to an opinion very similar to this as maintained by the Stoics; De Div. ii. 44.

385 “procella.”

386 “ἐκ νέφους, ex nube, erumpente spiritu.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 343. Perhaps it most nearly corresponds to the term “hurricane.”

387 a τύφω, incendo, ardeo. We have no distinct term in our language which corresponds to the account of the typhon; it may be considered as a combination of a whirlwind and a hurricane.

388 Plutarch, Sympos. Quæst. iii. 5, refers to the extraordinary power of vinegar in extinguishing fire, but he ascribes this effect, not to its coldness, but to the extreme tenuity of its parts. On this Alexandre remarks, “Melius factum negassent Plinius et Plutarchus, quam causam inanem rei absurdissimæ excogitarent.” Lemaire, i. 344.

389 The terms here employed are respectively “turbines,” “presteres,” and “vortices.”

390 πρηστὴρ, a πρήθω, incendo. Seneca calls it “igneus turbo;” Nat. Quæst. v. 13. p. 762. See also Lucretius, vi. 423.

391 Plutarch.

392 A water-spout. We have a description of this phænomenon in Lucretius, vi. 425 et seq.

393 “fulmen.”

394 This has been pointed out by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 346, as one of the statements made by our author, which, in consequence of his following the Greek writers, applies rather to their climate than to that of Italy. The reader may form a judgement of the correctness of this remark by comparing the account given by Aristotle and by Seneca; the former in Meteor. iii. 1. p. 573, 574, the latter in Nat. Quæst. ii. 32 et seq.

395 “fulgur.” The account of the different kinds of thunder seems to be principally taken from Aristotle; Meteor. iii. 1. Some of the phænomena mentioned below, which would naturally appear to the ancients the most remarkable, are easily explained by a reference to their electrical origin.

396 “quod clarum vocant.”

397 This account seems to be taken from Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 1. p. 574; see also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. ii. 31. p. 711. We have an account of the peculiar effects of thunder in Lucretius, vi. 227 et seq.

398 This effect may be easily explained by the agitation into which the female might have been thrown. The title of “princeps Romanarum,” which is applied to Marcia, has given rise to some discussion among the commentators, for which see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 348.

399 Sometimes a partial thunder-cloud is formed, while the atmosphere generally is perfectly clear, or, as Hardouin suggests, the effect might have been produced by a volcanic eruption. See Lemaire, i. 348.

400 Seneca gives us an account of the opinions of the Tuscans; Nat. Quæst. ii. 32; and Cicero refers to the “libri fulgurales” of the Etrurians; De Divin. i. 72.

401 According to Hardouin, “Summanus est Deus summus Manium, idem Orcus et Pluto dictus.” Lemaire, i. 349; he is again referred to by our author, xxix. 14; Ovid also mentions him, Fast. vi. 731, with the remark, “quisquis is est.”

402 The city of Bolsena is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Volsinium. From the nature of the district in which it is situate, it is perhaps more probable, that the event alluded to in the test was produced by a volcanic eruption, attended by lightning, than by a simple thunder-storm.

403 “Vocant et familiaria ... quæ prima fiunt familiam suam cuique indepto.” This remark is explained by the following passage from Seneca; Nat. Quæst. ii. 47. “Hæc sunt fulmina, quæ primo accepto patrimonio, in novo hominis aut urbis statu fiunt.” This opinion, as well as most of those of our author, respecting the auguries to be formed from thunder, is combated by Seneca; ubi supra, § 48.

404 This opinion is also referred to by Seneca in the following passage; “privata autem fulmina negant ultra decimum annum, publica ultra trigesimum posse deferri;” ubi supra.

405 “in deductione oppidorum;” according to Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 350, “quum in oppida coloniæ deducuntur.”

406 The following conjecture is not without a degree of probability; “Ex hoc multisque aliis auctorum locis, plerique conjiciunt Etruscis auguribus haud ignotam fuisse vim electricam, licet eorum arcana nunquam divulgata sint.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 350.

407 Alexandre remarks in this place, “An morbus aliquis fuit, qui primum in agros debacchatus, jam urbi minabatur, forsitan ab aëris siccitate natus, quem advenientes cum procella imbres discusserunt?” Lemaire, i. 350.

408 For a notice of Piso, see Lemaire, i. 208.

409 We have an account of the death of Tullus Hostilius in Livy, i. 31.

410 “ab eliciendo, seu quod precationibus cœlo evocaretur, id nomen traxit.” This is confirmed by the following lines from Ovid, Fast. iii. 327, 328:—

“Eliciunt cœlo te, Jupiter: unde minores

Nunc quoque te celebrant, Eliciumque vocant.”

411 “beneficiis abrogare vires.”

412 “ictum autem et sonitum congruere, ita modulante natura.” This remark is not only incorrect, but appears to be at variance both with what precedes and what follows.

413 The following remark of Seneca may be referred to, both as illustrating our author and as showing how much more correct the opinions of Seneca were than his own, on many points of natural philosophy; “... necesse est, ut impetus fulminis et præmittat spiritus, et agat ante se, et a tergo trahat ventum....;” Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. § 20. p. 706.

414 “quoniam læva parte mundi ortus est.” On this passage Hardouin remarks; “a Deorum sede, quum in meridiem spectes, ad sinistram sunt partes mundi exorientes;” Lemaire, i. 353. Poinsinet enters into a long detail respecting opinions of the ancients on this point and the circumstances which induced them to form their opinions; i. 34 et seq.

415 See Cicero de Divin. ii. 42.

416 “Junonis quippe templum fulmine violatum ostendit non a Jove, non a Deis mitti fulmina.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 354. The consulate of Scaurus was in the year of Rome 638. Lucan, i. 155, and Horace, Od. i. 2. refer to the destruction of temples at Rome by lightning.

417 Obviously because faint flashes are more visible in the night.

418 We have an explanation of this peculiar opinion in Tertullian, as referred to by Hardouin, Lemaire. i. 355; “Qui de cœlo tangitur, salvus est, ut nullo igne decinerescat.”

419 Although it has been thought necessary by M. Fée, in the notes to Ajasson’s trans., ii. 384, 385, to enter into a formal examination of this opinion of the author’s, I conceive that few of our readers will agree with him in this respect.

420 Suetonius informs us, that Augustus always wore a seal’s skin for this purpose; Octavius, § 90.

421 The eagle was represented by the ancients with a thunderbolt in its claws.

422 There is strong evidence for the fact, that, at different times, various substances have fallen from the atmosphere, sometimes apparently of mineral, and, at other times, of animal or vegetable origin. Some of these are now referred to those peculiar bodies termed aërolites, the nature and source of which are still doubtful, although their existence is no longer so. These bodies have, in other instances, been evidently discharged from distant volcanoes, but there are many cases where the substance could not be supposed to have proceeded from a volcano, and where, in the present state of our knowledge, it appears impossible to offer an explanation of their nature, or the source whence they are derived. We may, however, conclude, that notwithstanding the actual occurrence of a few cases of this description, a great proportion of those enumerated by the ancients were either entirely without foundation or much exaggerated. We meet with several variations of what we may presume to have been aërolites in Livy; for example, xxiv. 10, xxx. 38, xli. 9, xliii. 13, and xliv. 18, among many others. As naturally may be expected, we have many narratives of this kind in Jul. Obsequens.

423 The same region from which lightning was supposed to proceed.

424 We have several relations of this kind in Livy, xxiv. 10, xxxix. 46 and 56, xl. 19, and xliii. 13. The red snow which exists in certain alpine regions, and is found to depend upon the presence of the Uredo nivalis, was formerly attributed to showers of blood.

425 This occurrence may probably be referred to an aërolite, while the wool mentioned below, i. e. a light flocculent substance, was perhaps volcanic.

426

Armorum sonitum toto Germania cœlo

Audiit.—Virgil, Geor. i. 474, 475.

“ ... in Jovis Vicilini templo, quod in Compsano agro est, arma concrepuisse.” Livy, xxiv. 44.

427 See Plutarch, by Langhorne; Marius, iii. 133.

428 See Livy, iii. 5 & 10, xxxi. 12, xxxii. 9, et alibi.

429 I have already had occasion to remark, concerning this class of phænomena, that there is no doubt of their actual occurrence, although their origin is still unexplained.

430 The life of Anaxagoras has been written by Diogenes Laërtius. We have an ample account of him by Enfield in the General Biography, in loco; he was born B.C. 500 and died B.C. 428.

431 There is some variation in the exact date assigned by different authors to this event; in the Chronological table in Brewster’s Encyc. vi. 420, it is said to have occurred 467 B.C.

432 Aristotle gives us a similar account of this stone; that it fell in the daytime, and that a comet was then visible at night; Meteor. i. 7. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the authority for this fact must be referred entirely to Aristotle, without receiving any additional weight from our author. The occurrence of the comet at the same time with the aërolite must have been entirely incidental.

433 “Deductis eo sacri lapidis causa colonis, extructoque oppido, cui nomen a colore adusto lapidis, est inditum, Potidæa. Est enim ποτὶ Dorice πρὸς, ad, apud; δαίομαι, uror.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 361. It was situated in the peninsula of Pallene, in Macedonia.

434 The Vocontii were a people of Gallia Narbonensis, occupying a portion of the modern Dauphiné.

435 “Manifestum est, radium Solis immissum cavæ nubi, repulsa acie in Solem, refringi.”

436 Aristotle treats of the Rainbow much in detail, principally in his Meteor. iii. 2, 3, 4, and 5, where he gives an account of the phænomena, which is, for the most part, correct, and attempts to form a theory for them; see especially cap. 4. p. 577 et seq. In the treatise De Mundo he also refers to the same subject, and briefly sums up his doctrine with the following remark: “arcus est species segmenti solaris vel lunaris, edita in nube humida, et cava, et perpetua; quam velut in speculo intuemur, imagine relata in speciem circularis ambitûs.” cap. 4. p. 607. Seneca also treats very fully on the phænomena and theory of the Rainbow, in his Nat. Quæst. i. 3-8.

437 Vide supra, also Meteor. iii. 2, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 3.

438 Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 5. p. 581, observes, that the rainbow is less frequently seen in the summer, because the sun is more elevated, and that, consequently, a less portion of the arch is visible. See also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 8. p. 692.

439 Aristotle treats at some length of dew, snow, and hail, in his Meteor. i. cap. 10, 11 & 12 respectively.

440 When water is frozen, its bulk is increased in consequence of its assuming a crystalline structure. Any diminution which may be found to have taken place in the bulk of the fluid, when thawed, must be ascribed to evaporation or to some accidental circumstance.

441 “Velini lacus ... præcipiti cursu in gurgitem subjectum defertur, et illo aquarum lapsu, dispersis in aëra guttis humidis, ... iridis multiplicis phænomenon efficit....” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 365.

442 We have an example in Martial, v. 34. 9, of the imprecation which has been common in all ages:

Mollia nec rigidus cespes tegat ossa, nec illi

Terra gravis fueris;

and in Seneca’s Hippolytus, sub finem:

... istam terra defossam premat,

Gravisque tellus impio capiti incubet.

443 The author refers to this opinion, xxix. 23, when describing the effects of venomous animals.

444 inertium; “ultione abstinentium,” as explained by Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 367.

445 “Quod mortis genus a terræ meritis et benignitate valde abhorret.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 367.

446 “Terra, inquit, sola est, e quatuor naturæ partibus sive elementis, adversus quam ingrati simus.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 368.

447 “Est ironiæ formula. Quid, ait, feras et serpentes et venena terræ exprobramus, quæ ne ad tuendam quidem illam satis valent?” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 369.

448 “ossa vel insepulta cum tempore tellus occultat, deprimentia pondere suo mollitam pluviis humum.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 370.

449 “figura prima.” I may refer to the second chapter of this book, where the author remarked upon the form of the earth as perfect in all its parts, and especially adapted for its supposed position in the centre of the universe.

450 “... si capita linearum comprehendantur ambitu;” the meaning of this passage would appear to be: if the extremities of the lines drawn from the centre of the earth to the different parts of the surface were connected together, the result of the whole would be a sphere. I must, however, remark, that Hardouin interprets it in a somewhat different manner; “Si per extremitates linearum ductarum a centro ad summos quosque vertices montium circulus exigatur.” Lemaire, i. 370.

451 “... immensum ejus globum in formam orbis assidua circa eam mundi volubilitate cogente.” As Hardouin remarks, the word mundus is here used in the sense of cœlum. Lemaire, i. 371.

452 As our author admits of the existence of antipodes, and expressly states that the earth is a perfect sphere, we may conclude that the resemblance to the cone of the pine is to be taken in a very general sense. How far the ancients entertained correct opinions respecting the globular figure of the earth, or rather, at what period this opinion became generally admitted, it is perhaps not easy to ascertain. The lines in the Georgics, i. 242, 243, which may be supposed to express the popular opinion in the time of Virgil, certainly do not convey the idea of a sphere capable of being inhabited in all its parts:

Hic vertex nobis semper sublimis; at illum

Sub pedibus Styx atra videt, manesque profundi.

453 “spiritus vis mundo inclusi.”

454 “... Alpium vertices, longo tractu, nec breviore quinquaginta millibus passuum assurgere.” To avoid the apparent improbability of the author conceiving of the Alps as 50 miles high, the commentators have, according to their usual custom, exercised their ingenuity in altering the text. See Poinsinet, i. 206, 207, and Lemaire, i. 373. But the expression does not imply that he conceived them as 50 miles in perpendicular height, but that there is a continuous ascent of 50 miles to get to the summit. This explanation of the passage is adopted by Alexandre; Lemaire, ut supra. For what is known of Dicæarchus I may refer to Hardouin, Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 181.

455 “coactam in verticem aquarum quoque figuram.”

456 “aquarum nempe convexitas.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 374.

457 “Quam quæ ad extremum mare a primis aquis.” I profess myself altogether unable to follow the author’s mode of reasoning in this paragraph, or to throw any light upon it. He would appear to be arguing in favour of the actual flatness of the surface of the ocean, whereas his previous remarks prove its convexity.

458 Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Nempe quod remotissimos etiam fontes alat oceanus. Sed omittit Plinius vaporationis intermedia ope hoc fieri.” Lemaire, i. 376. Aristotle has written at considerable length on the origin of springs, in his Meteor. i. 13. p. 543 et seq. He argues against the opinion of those who suppose that the water of springs is entirely derived from evaporation. Seneca’s account of the origin of springs is found in his Nat. Quæst. iii. 1.

459 The voyage which is here alluded to was probably that performed by Drusus; it is mentioned by Dio, lib. iv., Suetonius, Claud. § 1, Vel. Paterculus, ii. 106, and by Tacitus, Germ. § 34.

460 What is here spoken of we may presume to have been that part of the German Ocean which lies to the N.W. of Denmark; the term Scythian was applied by the ancients in so very general a way, as not to afford any indication of the exact district so designated.

461 “Sub eodem sidere;” “which lies under the same star.”

462 The ancients conceived the Caspian to be a gulf, connected with the northern ocean. Our author gives an account of it, vi. 15.

463 That is, of the Caspian Sea.

464 The remarks which our author makes upon the Palus Mæotis, in the different parts of his work, ii. 112 and vi. 7, appear so inconsistent with each other, that we must suppose he indiscriminately borrowed them from various writers, without comparing their accounts, or endeavouring to reconcile them to each other. Such inaccuracies may be thought almost to justify the censure of Alexandre, who styles our author, “indiligens plane veri et falsi compilator, et ubi dissentiunt auctores, nunquam aut raro sibi constans.” Lemaire, i. 378.

465 The son of Agrippa, whom Augustus adopted. Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 378.

466 See Beloe’s Herodotus, ii. 393, 394, for an account of the voyage round Africa that was performed by the Phœnicians, who were sent to explore those parts by Necho king of Egypt.

467 It is generally supposed that C. Nepos lived in the century previous to the Christian æra. Ptolemy Lathyrus commenced his reign U.C. 627 or B.C. 117, and reigned for 36 years. The references made to C. Nepos are not found in any of his works now extant.

468 We have previously referred to Eudoxus, note 382, p. 78.

469 We have a brief account of Antipater in Hardouin’s Index Auctorum; Lemaire, i. 162.

470 We are informed by Alexandre that this was in the year of the City 691, the same year in which Cicero was consul; see note in Lemaire, i. 379.

471 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the account here given must be incorrect; the reader who may be disposed to learn the opinions of the commentators on this point, may consult the notes in Poinsinet and Lemaire in loco.

472 Dividuo globo; “Eoas partes a vespertinis dividente oceano.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 380.

473 “Jam primum in dimidio computari videtur.”

474 “Cœlum;” the rigour of the climate.

475 The division of the globe into five zones is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 233-239, and by Ovid, Met. i. 45, 46.

476 “... interna maria allatrat, ...”

477 This is considerably more than the distance in the present day. The Isthmus of Suez appears, according to the statement of the most accurate geographers, to be about 70 miles in breadth.

478 Hæ tot portiones terræ, as Alexandre correctly remarks, “ironice dictum. Quam paucæ enim supersunt!” Lemaire, i. 383.

479 “Mundi punctus.” This expression, we may presume, was taken from Seneca; “Hoc est illud punctum, quod inter tot gentes ferro et igni dividitur.” Nat. Quæst. i. præf. p. 681.

480 Nostro solo adfodimus; “addimus, adjungimus, annectimus, ut una fossione aretur.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 383.

481 “Mundi totius.”

482 “Æquinoctii paribus horis.”

483 Dioptra. “Græce διόπτρα, instrumentum est geometricum, un quart de cercle, quo apparentes rerum inter se distantiæ anguli apertura dijudicantur.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 384.

484 This title does not correspond with the contents of the chapter.

485 “Tropici duo, cum æquinoctiali circulo;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 384.

486 The Troglodytice of the ancients may be considered as nearly corresponding to the modern Abyssinia and Nubia.

487 This remark is incorrect, as far as respects nearly the whole of Egypt; see the remarks of Marcus, in Ajasson, ii. 245.

488 This is a star of the first magnitude in the southern constellation of Argo; we have a similar statement in Manilius, i. 216, 217.

489 The commentators suppose that the star or constellation here referred to cannot be the same with what bears this name on the modern celestial atlas; vide Hardouin in loco, also Marc. in Ajasson, ut supra. The constellation of Berenice’s hair forms the subject of Catullus’s 67th poem.

490 In Troglodytice and in Egypt.

491 The first watch of the night was from 6 P.M. to 9; the second from 9 to midnight.

492 According to Columella, xi. 2. 369, this was 9 Calend. Mart., corresponding to the 21st of February.

493 “In alia adverso, in alia prono mari.” I have adopted the opinion of Alexandre, who explains the terms “adverso” and “prono,” “ascendenti ad polum,” and “ad austrum devexo;” a similar sense is given to the passage by Poinsinet and Ajasson, in their translations.

494 “Anfractu pilæ.” See Manilius, i. 206 et seq. for a similar mode of expression.

495 “Aut;” as Poinsinet remarks, “aut est ici pour alioqui;” and he quotes another passage from our author, xix. 3, where the word is employed in a similar manner.

496 We may presume that the author meant to convey the idea, that the eclipses which are visible in any one country are not so in those which are situated under a different meridian. The terms “vespertinos,” “matutinos,” and “meridianos,” refer not to the time of the day, but to the situation of the eclipse, whether recurring in the western, eastern, or southern parts of the heavens.

497 Brewster, in the art. “Chronology,” p. 415, mentions this eclipse as having taken place Sept. 21st, U.C. 331, eleven days before the battle of Arbela; while, in the same art. p. 423, the battle is said to have taken place on Oct. 2nd, eleven days after a total eclipse of the moon.

498 It took place on the 30th of April, in the year of the City 811, A.D. 59; see Brewster, ubi supra. It is simply mentioned by Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 12, as having occurred among other prodigies which took place at this period.

499 We have an account of Corbulo’s expedition to Armenia in Dion Cassius, lx. 19-24, but there is no mention of the eclipse or of any peculiar celestial phænomenon.

500 The terms employed in the original are “oppositu” and “ambitu.” Alexandre’s explanation of the first is, “quum globi terraquei crassitudo interposita solis arcet radios;” and of the second, “quum nostra hujus globi pars a sole ambitur.” Lemaire, i. 389.

501 One of these towers is mentioned by Livy, xxxiii. 48; it is said to have been situated between Acholla and Thapsus, on the sea-coast.

502 Hardouin, according to his usual custom, employs all his learning and ingenuity to give a plausible explanation of this passage. Alexandre, as it must be confessed, with but too much reason, remarks, “Frustra desudavit Harduinus ut sanum aliquem sensum ex illis Plinii deliramentis excuteret.” He correctly refers the interval of time, which was said to occur between these signals, not to any astronomical cause, but to the necessary delay which took place in the transmission of them. He concludes, “Sed ad cursum solis hoc referre, dementiæ est. Nam ut tanta horarum differentia intersit, si moram omnem in speculandis ac transmittendis signis sustuleris, necesse erit observatores illos ultimos 135 gradibus, id est, sesquidimidio hemisphærio, a primis distare furribus. Recte igitur incredibilem Plinii credulitatem ludibrio vertit Baylius in Dictionario suo.” Lemaire, i. 389.

503 The distance, as here stated, is about 150 miles, which he is said to have performed in nine hours, but that the same distance, in returning, required fifteen hours. We have here, as on the former occasion, a note of Hardouin’s to elucidate the statement of the author. On this Alexandre observes, “Optime; sed in tam parva locorum distantia, Elidis et Sicyonis horologia vix quinque unius horæ sexagesimis differre poterant; quare eunti ac redeunti ne discrimen quidem quadrantis horæ intererat. Ineptos igitur auctores sequitur hoc quoque loco Plinius.” Lemaire, i. 390, 391.

504 “Vincunt spatia nocturnæ navigationis.” This expression would appear to imply, that the author conceived some physical difficulty in sailing during the night, and so it seems to be understood by Alexandre; vide not. in loco.

505 “Vasa horoscopica.” “Vasa horoscopica appellat horologia in plano descripta, horizonti ad libellam respondentia. Vasa dicuntur, quod area in qua lineæ ducebantur, labri interdum instar et conchæ erat, cujus in margine describebantur horæ. Horoscopa, ab ὥρα et σκοπέω, hoc est, ab inspiciendis horis.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 391.

506 These distances are respectively about 38 and 62 miles.

507 We are not to expect any great accuracy in these estimates, and we accordingly find, that our author, when referring to the subject in his 6th book, ch. 39, makes the shadow at Ancona 1⁄35 greater than the gnomon, while, in Venetia, which is more northerly, he says, as in the present chapter, that the shadow and the gnomon are equal in length. See the remarks of M. Alexandre in Lemaire, ut supra.

508 This would be about 625 miles. Strabo, ii. 114, and Lucan, ii. 587, give the same distance, which is probably nearly correct. Syene is, however, a little to the north of the tropic.

509 This remark is not correct, as no part of this river is between the tropics. For an account of Onesicritus see Lemaire, i. 203, 204.

510 “In meridiem umbras jaci.” M. Ajasson translates this passage, “les ombres tombent pendant quatre-vingt-dix jours sur le point central du méridien.” ii. 165. But I conceive that Holland’s version is more correct, “for 90 days’ space all the shadows are cast into the south.” i. 36. The remarks of M. Alexandre are to the same effect; “... ut bis solem in zenitho haberet (Ptolemais), Maii mensis et Augusti initio; interea vero, solem e septemtrione haberet.” Lemaire, i. 393.

511 About 625 miles.

512 These days correspond to the 8th of May and the 4th of August respectively.

513 There is considerable uncertainty respecting the identity of this mountain; our author refers to it in a subsequent part of his work, where it is said to be in the country of the Monedes and Suari; vi. 22. See the note of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 394.

514 Our author, in a subsequent part of his work, vi. 23, describes the island of Patale as situated near the mouth of the Indus; he again refers to it, xii. 25. His account of the position of the sun does not, however, apply to this place.

515 If we may suppose this to have been actually the case, we might calculate the time of the year when Alexander visited this place and the length of his stay.

516 We may presume, that our author means to say no more than that, in those places, they are occasionally invisible; literally the observation would not apply to any part of India.

517 ἄσκια, shadowless.

518 If this really were the case, it could have no relation to the astronomical position of the country.

519 “In contrarium,” contrary to what takes place at other times, i. e. towards the south. This observation is not applicable to the whole of this country, as its northern and southern parts differ from each other by seven or eight degrees of latitude. For an account of Eratosthenes see Lemaire, i. 186.

520 “Hora duodecim in partes, ut as in totidem uncias dividebatur. Octonas igitur partes horæ antiquæ, sive bessem, ut Martianus vocat, nobis probe repræsentant horarum nostratium 40 sexagesimæ, quas minutas vocamus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 396.

521 For a notice of Pytheas see Lemaire, i. 210. He was a geographer and historian who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus; but his veracity does not appear to have been highly estimated by his contemporaries.

522 The Thule of Pliny has been generally supposed to be the Shetland Isles. What is here asserted respecting the length of the day, as well as its distance from Britain, would indeed apply much more correctly to Iceland than to Shetland; but we have no evidence that Iceland was known to the ancients. Our author refers to the length of the day in Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 36.

523 Supposed to be Colchester in Essex; while the Mona of Pliny appears to have been Anglesea. It is not easy to conceive why the author measured the distance of Mona from Camelodunum.

524 Chap. 6 of this book.

525 a σκιὰ, umbra, and θηράω, sector. It has been a subject for discussion by the commentators, how far this instrument of Anaximenes is entitled to the appellation of a dial, whether it was intended to mark the hours, or to serve for some other astronomical purpose. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 398, 399. It has been correctly remarked by Brotier, that we have an account of a much more ancient dial in the 2nd book of Kings, xx. 9, 11.

526 A. Gellius, iii. 3, informs us, that the question concerning the commencement of the day was one of the topics discussed by Varro, in his book “Rerum Humanarum:” this work is lost. We learn from the notes of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 399, that there are certain countries in which all these various modes of computation are still practised; the last-mentioned is the one commonly employed in Europe.

527 It has been supposed, that in this passage the author intended to say no more than that the nights are shorter at the summer solstice than at the other parts of the year; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 399, 400. But to this, I conceive, it may be objected, that the words “inter ortus solis” can scarcely apply to the period while the sun is below the horizon, and that the solstices generally would seem to be opposed to the equinoxes generally. Also the words “obliquior” and “rectior” would appear to have some farther reference than merely to the length of time during which the sun is above or below the horizon.

528 “Vibrato;” the same term is applied by Turnus to the hair of Æneas; Æn. xii. 100.

529 “Mobilitate hebetes;” it is not easy to see the connexion between these two circumstances.

530 There is a passage in Galen, De Temperamentis, iii. 6, which may appear to sanction the opinion of our author; “Siccos esse, quibus macra sunt crura; humidos, quibus crassa.”

531 The latter part of the remark is correct, but the number of ferocious animals is also greater in the warmer regions; there is, in fact, a greater variety in all the productions of nature in the warmer districts of the globe, except in those particular spots where animal or vegetable life is counteracted by some local circumstances, as in many parts of Asia and Africa by the want of water.

532 “Sensus liquidus;” Alexandre explains this expression, “judicium sanum, mens intelligendo apta.” Lemaire, i. 401.

533 Saturn, Jupiter and Mars: see the 8th chapter of this book.

534 “Vel quando meant cum Sole in conjunctione cum eo, vel quando cum eo conveniunt in aspectu, maxime vero in quadrato, qui fit, quum distant a Sole quarta mundi sive cœli parte.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 401.

535 “Ut urbem et tecta custodirent.” This anecdote is referred to by Cicero, who employs the words “ut urbem et tecta linquerent.” De Divin. i. 112.

536 This anecdote is also referred to by Cicero, de Div. ii.

537 It has been observed that earthquakes, as well as other great convulsions of nature, are preceded by calms; it has also been observed that birds and animals generally exhibit certain presentiments of the event, by something peculiar in their motions or proceedings; this circumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 12.

538 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this supposed resemblance or analogy is entirely without foundation. The phænomena of earthquakes are described by Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 4, and Meteor. ii. 7 and 8; also by Seneca in various parts of the 6th book of his Quæst. Nat.

539 On this subject we shall find much curious matter in Aristotle’s Treatise de Mundo, cap. 4.

540 Poinsinet enters into a long detail of some of the most remarkable earthquakes that have occurred, from the age of Pliny to the period when he wrote, about fifty years ago; i. 249. 2.

541 See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

542 See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 13.

543 “Fervente;” “Fremitum aquæ ferventis imitante.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 404.

544 The reader will scarcely require to be informed, that many of the remarks in the latter part of this chapter are incorrect. Our author has principally followed Aristotle, whose treatise on meteorology, although abounding in curious details, is perhaps one of the least correct of his works.

545 This observation is taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

546 Phænomena of this kind have been frequently noticed, and are not difficult of explanation.

547 “In iisdem;” “Iidem, inquit, putei inclusum terra spiritum libero meatu emittentes, terræ motus avertunt.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 406.

548 “Quæ pendent.” M. Ajasson translates this passage, “qui sont comme suspendues.” Hardouin’s explanation is, “Structis fornice cameris imposita ædificia intelligit; quod genus camerarum spiramenta plerumque habet non pauca, quibus exeat ad libertatem aer.” Lemaire, i. 407.

549 Many of these circumstances are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 30. On the superior security of brick buildings, M. Alexandre remarks, “Muri e lateribus facti difficilius quam cæteri dehiscunt, unde fit ut in urbibus muniendis id constructionum genus plerumque præferatur. Ex antiquæ Italiæ palatiis templisve nihil fere præter immensas laterum moles hodie superest.”

550 These remarks upon the different kinds of shocks are probably taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

551 This observation is also in Aristotle, ii. 8.

552 In the year of the city 663; A.C. 90.

553 In the year of the city 821; A.D. 68.

554 The continuation of Aufidius Bassus’ history; our author refers to it in the first book.

555 We have no authentic accounts of this mutual change of place between two portions of land, nor can we conceive of any cause capable of effecting it. Our author mentions this circumstance again in book xvii. ch. 38.

556 See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

557 “Eodem videlicet spiritu infusi (maris) ac terræ residentis sinu recepti.”

558 U.C. 770; A.D. 17. We have an account of this event in Strabo, xii. 57; in Tacitus, Ann. ii. 47; and in the Universal History, xiv. 129, 130. We are informed by Hardouin, that coins are still in existence which were struck to commemorate the liberality of the emperor on the occasion, inscribed “civitatibus Asiæ restitutis.” Lemaire, i. 410.

559 U.C. 537; A.C. 217.

560 This circumstance is mentioned by Livy, xxii. 5, and by Floras, ii. 6.

561 “Præsagiis, inquit, quam ipsa clade, sæviores sunt terræ motus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 410.

562 This phænomenon is distinctly referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 21. It presents us with one of those cases, where the scientific deductions of the moderns have been anticipated by the speculations of the ancients.

563 Odyss. iv. 354-357; see also Arist. Meteor. i. 14; Lucan, x. 509-511; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 26; Herodotus, ii. 4, 5; and Strabo, i. 59.

564 These form, at this day, the Monte Circello, which, it is remarked, rises up like an island, out of the Pontine marshes. It seems, however, difficult to conceive how any action of the sea could have formed these marshes.

565 See Strabo, i. 58.

566 ii. 5. et alibi.

567 The plain in which this river flows, forming the windings from which it derives its name, appears to have been originally an inlet of the sea, which was gradually filled up with alluvial matter.

568 “Paria secum faciente natura.” This appears to have been a colloquial or idiomatic expression among the Romans. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 412.

569 It may be remarked, that the accounts of modern travellers and geologists tend to confirm the opinion of the volcanic origin of many of the islands of the Archipelago.

570 Brotier remarks, that, according to the account of Herodotus, this island existed previous to the date here assigned to it; Lemaire, i. 412, 413: it is probable, however, that the same name was applied to two islands, one at least of which was of volcanic origin.

571 U.C. 517, A.C. 237; and U.C. 647, A.C. 107; respectively.

572 Hiera, Automata; ab ἱερὰ, sacer, et αὐτομάτη, sponte nascens. Respecting the origin of these islands there would appear to be some confusion in the dates, which it is difficult to reconcile with each other; it is, I conceive, impossible to decide whether this depends upon an error of our author himself, or of his transcribers.

573 July 25th, U.C. 771; A.C. 19.

574 U.C. 628; A.C. 125.

575 See Ovid, Metam. xv. 290, 291; also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 29.

576 This event is mentioned by Thucydides, lib. 3, Smith’s Trans, i. 293; and by Diodorus, xii. 7, Booth’s Trans. p. 287, as the consequence of an earthquake; but the separation was from Locris, not from Eubœa. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 415.

577 It is somewhat uncertain to what island our author applied this name; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire.

578 See Ovid, Metam. xv. 287.

579 It is not improbable, from the situation and geological structure of the places here enumerated, that many of the changes mentioned above may have actually occurred; but there are few of them of which we have any direct evidence.

580 This celebrated narrative of Plato is contained in his Timæus, Op. ix. p. 296, 297; it may be presumed that it was not altogether a fiction on the part of the author, but it is, at this time, impossible to determine what part of it was derived from ancient traditions and what from the fertile stores of his own imagination. It is referred to by various ancient writers, among others by Strabo. See also the remarks of Brotier in Lemaire, i. 416, 417.

581 Many of these changes on the surface of the globe, and others mentioned by our author in this part of his work, are alluded to by Ovid, in his beautiful abstract of the Pythagorean doctrine, Metam. xv. passim.

582 See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Strabo, i. For some account of the places mentioned in this chapter the reader may consult the notes of Hardouin in loco.

583 Poinsinet, as I conceive correctly, makes the following clause the commencement of the next chapter.

584 See Ovid, Metam. xv. 293-295; also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 418.

585 “Spatium intelligit, fretumve, quo Sicilia nunc ab Italia dispescitur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 419.

586 See Strabo, ix.

587 “Spiracula.”

588 “Busta urbium.”

589 “Suboriens,” as M. Alexandre explains it, “renascens;” Lemaire, i. 420.

590 “Scrobibus;” “aut quum terra fossis excavatur, ut in Pomptina palude, aut per naturales hiatus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 420.

591 This circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 28, as occurring “pluribus Italiæ locis;” it may be ascribed to the exhalations from volcanos being raised up into the atmosphere. It does not appear that there is, at present, any cavern in Mount Soracte which emits mephitic vapours. But the circumstance of Soracte being regarded sacred to Apollo, as we learn from our author, vii. 2, and from Virgil, Æn. xi. 785, may lead us to conjecture that something of the kind may formerly have existed there.

592 The author may probably refer to the well-known Grotto del Cane, where, in consequence of a stratum of carbonic acid gas, which occupies the lower part of the cave only, dogs and other animals, whose mouths are near the ground, are instantly suffocated.

593 Celebrated in the well-known lines of Virgil, Æn. vii. 563 et seq., as the “sævi spiracula Ditis.”

594 Apuleius gives us an account of this place from his own observation; De Mundo, § 729. See also Strabo, xii.

595 See Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iv.

596 “Ad ingressum ambulantium, et equorum cursus, terræ quoque tremere sentiuntur in Brabantino agro, quæ Belgii pars, et circa S. Audomari fanum.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 421, 422.

597 See Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25.

598 Martial speaks of the marshy nature of the Cæcuban district, xiii. 115. Most of the places mentioned in this chapter are illustrated by the remarks of Hardouin; Lemaire, i. 422, 423.

599 “Saltuares.” In some of the MSS. the term here employed is Saliares, or Saltares; but in all the editions which I am in the habit of consulting, it is Saltuares.

600 There is, no doubt, some truth in these accounts of floating islands, although, as we may presume, much exaggerated. There are frequently small portions of land detached from the edges of lakes, by floods or rapid currents, held together and rendered buoyant by a mass of roots and vegetable matter. In the lake of Keswick, in the county of Cumberland, there are two small floating islands, of a few yards in circumference, which are moved about by the wind or by currents; they appear to consist, principally, of a mass of vegetable fibres.

601 It has been observed, that there are certain places where bodies remain for a long time without undergoing decomposition; it depends principally upon a dry and cool condition of the air, such as is occasionally found in vaults and natural caverns. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 424.

602 We may conceive of a large mass of rock being so balanced upon the fine point of another rock, as to be moved by the slightest touch; but, that if it be pushed with any force, it may be thrown upon a plane surface, and will then remain immovable.

603 Perhaps the author may refer to some kind of earth, possessed of absorbent or astringent properties, like the Terra Sigillata or Armenian Bole of the old Pharmacopœias.

604 A σὰρξ, caro, and φάγω, edo. We may conceive this stone to have contained a portion of an acrid ingredient, perhaps of an alkaline nature, which, in some degree, might produce the effect here described. It does not appear that the material of which the stone coffins are composed, to which this name has been applied, the workmanship of which is so much an object of admiration, are any of them possessed of this property.

605 Alexandre remarks on this statement, “Montes istæ videntur originem dedisse fabulæ quæ in Arabicis Noctibus legitur ...;” Lemaire, i. 425. Fouché, indeed, observes, that there are mountains composed principally of natural loadstone, which might sensibly attract a shoe containing iron nails. Ajasson, ii. 386. But I conceive that we have no evidence of the existence of the magnetic iron pyrites having ever been found in sufficient quantity to produce any sensible effect of the kind here described.

606 We may remark generally, that of the “miracula” related in this chapter, the greatest part are entirely without foundation, and the remainder much exaggerated.

607 “Mundo;” the heavens or visible firmament, to which the stars and planets appear to be connected, so as to be moved along with it.

608 “Ancillante;” “Credas ancillari sidus, et indulgere mari, ut non ab eadem parte, qua pridie, pastum ex oceano hauriat.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 427.

609 Not depending on the time of the rising and setting of the sun or the latitude of the place, but determinate portions of the diurnal period.

610 By a conjectural variation of a letter, viz. by substituting “eos” for “eas,” Dalechamp has, as he conceives, rendered this passage more clear; the alteration is adopted by Lemaire.

611 “In iisdem ortus occasusque operibus;” “Eodem modo utrinque orientibus occidentibusque sideribus,” as interpreted by Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 428.

612 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that both the alleged fact and the supposed cause are incorrect. And this is the case with what our author says in the next sentence, respecting the period of eight years, and the hundred revolutions of the moon.

613 “Solis annuis causis.” The circumstances connected with the revolution of the sun, acting as causes of the period and height of the tides, in addition to the effect of the moon.

614 “Inanes;” “Depressiores ac minus tumentes.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 429.

615 According to the remark of Alexandre, “Uno die et dimidio altero, 36 circiter horis, in Gallia.” Lemaire, i. 429.

616 Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Variat pro locis hoc intervallum a nullo fere temporis momento ad undecim horas et amplius;” Lemaire, i. 429.

617 Our author has already referred to Pytheas, in the 77th chapter of this book.

618 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the space here mentioned, which is nearly 120 feet, is far greater than the actual fact.

619 “Ditioni paret;” “Lunæ solisque efficientiæ, quæ ciet æstum.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 430.

620 The effect here described could not have depended upon the tides, but upon some current, either affecting the whole of the Mediterranean, or certain parts of it. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire.

621 Pliny naturally adopted the erroneous opinions respecting the state of the blood-vessels, and the cause of the pulse, which were universally maintained by the ancients.

622 The name of Euripus is generally applied to the strait between Bœotia and Eubœa, but our author here extends it to that between Italy and Sicily. A peculiarity in the tide of this strait is referred to by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. iii. 24.

623 “Æstus idem triduo in mense consistit.” “Consistentia, sive mediocritas aquarum non solum septima die sentitur, sed et octava, ac nona durat,” as Hardouin explains this passage, Lemaire, i. 431.

624 Now called the Guadalquivir.

625 The modern Seville.

626 This circumstance is noticed by most of the ancients, as by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1; by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iv. 2; and by Strabo. It has, however, no relation to the tide, but depends upon the quantity of water transmitted into the Euxine by the numerous large rivers that empty themselves into it.

627 It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that the greater height of the tides at this period will cause a greater quantity of matter to be cast on shore. This circumstance is referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26; and by Strabo.

628 Alexandre observes on this supposed fact, “Algarum molles quædam species intelligendæ sunt, quæ convolutæ et marcidæ in littus ejiciuntur.” Lemaire, i. 432.

629 It may cause some surprise to find that such an opinion has been entertained even in modern times; but more correct observation has shown it to be without foundation. Lemaire.

630 “Spiritus sidus;” “Quod vitalem humorem ac spiritus in corporibus rebusque omnibus varie temperet.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 433.

631 “Terras saturet;” as Alexandre interprets it, “succo impleat;” Lemaire.

632 This circumstance is alluded to by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 33, and by Horace, Sat. ii. 4, 30. It is difficult to conceive how an opinion so totally unfounded, and so easy to refute, should have obtained general credence.

633 Lib. xviii. chap. 75.

634 Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1, remarks, that as the sun is continually evaporating the water of the sea, it must eventually be entirely dried up. But we have reason to believe, that all the water which is evaporated by the solar heat, or any other natural process, is again deposited in the form of rain or dew.

635 “Terræ sudor;” according to Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 4: this opinion was adopted by some of the ancients.

636 The commentators discuss at considerable length the relative merits of the three hypotheses here proposed, to account for the saltness of the ocean; all of which are equally unfounded. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 434, 435. Aristotle’s opinion on this subject is contained in his Meteor.

637 It is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very general opinion respecting the peculiar physical action of the moon. The alleged facts are, for the most part, without foundation, and I am not aware of any circumstance which could, originally, have made them a part of the popular creed of so many nations, ancient as well as modern. Perhaps some of the effects which have been ascribed to the specific action of the moon, may be explained by the lower temperature and greater dampness of the air, during the absence of the sun.

638 There appears to be some doubt respecting the history of the person here referred to: according to the account of Hardouin, Fabianus was a naturalist, who enjoyed a high reputation; he lived in the time of Tiberius: see Lemaire, i. 188.

639 This would be a depth of 3125 yards, not very far short of two miles; see Adam’s Rom. Antiq. p. 503.

640 “Βαθέα Ponti;” Aristotle refers to this as one of those parts where the sea is unfathomable; Meteor. i. 13.

641 A distance of nearly nine and a half miles.

642 The specific gravity of sea water varies from 1·0269 to 1·0285. The saline contents of the water of the English Channel are stated to be 27 grs. in 1000. Turner’s Chem. p. 1289, 1290.

643 The modern names of the rivers and lakes here mentioned are the Liris, communicating with the Lago di Celano; the Adda, with the Lago di Como; the Ticino, with the Lago Maggiore; the Mincio, with the Lago di Guarda; the Oglio, with the Lago di Sero; and the Rhone with the Lake of Geneva. There may be some foundation for the alleged fact, because the specific gravity and the temperature of the lake may differ a little from that of the river which passes through it.

644 According to Brotier, “fons ille olim nobilissimus, nunc ignobile est lavacrum, cujus aqua marino sapore inficitur.” He conceives that there is no actual foundation for this so frequently repeated story; and conjectures that it originated from the similitude of the names, the fountain in Sicily and the river in the Peloponnesus being both named Alpheus. He goes on to mention some examples of springs of fresh water rising up on the sea-coast; Lemaire, i. 438. The allusion to the fountain of Arethusa, by Virgil, in the commencement of the 10th eclogue, is well known to all classical scholars. The lines of Virgil have been elegantly imitated by Voltaire, in the Henriade, ix. 269, 270.

645 This is mentioned by Ovid, Met. xv. 273, 274.

646 This is again referred to by our author, vi. 31; also by Strabo, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26.

647 Pausanias.

648 The river here referred to is the Tanager, the modern Rio Negro. See the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 439.

649 From a note in Poinsinet, i. 302, we learn that there has been some doubt respecting the locality of this river. It is mentioned by Virgil, Æn. i. 244, and it forms the subject of Heyne’s 7th Excursus, ii. 124 et seq. Virgil also speaks of the Timavus, Ec. viii. 6; and Heyne, in a note, gives the following description of it: “Timavus in ora Adriæ, non longe ab Aquileia fluvius ex terra novem fontibus seu capitibus progressus, brevi cursu, in unum alveum collectus, lato altoque flumine in mare exit.” i. 127, 128.

650 This remark is not to be taken in its full extent; the water of these lakes contains a large quantity of saline and other substances dissolved in it, and, consequently, has its specific gravity so much increased, that various substances float on it which sink in pure water.

651 According to Hardouin, this is now called the Lake of Andoria, near the town of Casalnuovo; Lemaire, i. 439. Poinsinet calls it Anduria, i. 303.

652 The petrifying quality of this river is referred to by Ovid, Met. xv. 313, 314; Seneca quotes these lines when treating on this subject, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

653 Aristotle, Strabo, and Silius Italicus, viii. 582, 583, refer to this property of the Silarus; but, according to Brotier, it does not appear to be known to the present inhabitants of the district through which it flows. Lemaire, i. 440.

654 In a subsequent part of the work, xxxi. 8, our author remarks, “Reatinis tantum paludibus ungulas jumentorum indurari.” We may presume that the water contained some saline, earthy or metallic substance, either in solution, or in a state of minute division, which would produce these effects. It does not appear that anything of this kind has been observed by the moderns in this water.

655 The coral beds with which the Red Sea abounds may have given rise to this opinion: see the remarks of Alexandre in loco. Hardouin informs us, that this clause respecting the Red Sea is not found in any of the MSS. Lemaire, i. 441. A similar observation occurs in a subsequent part of the work, xiii. 48.

656 There are thermal springs in the Alpine valleys, but not any in the elevated parts of the Alps themselves.

657 The volcanic nature of a large portion of the south of Italy and the neighbouring islands may be regarded as the cause of the warm springs which are found there.

658 This river may be supposed to have been principally supplied by melted snow; it would appear to be colder, because its temperature would be less elevated than the other streams in the neighbourhood.

659 The statement, if correct, may be referred to the discharge of a quantity of inflammable gas from the surface of the water. The fact is mentioned by Lucretius, vi. 879, 880, and by Mela.

660 “Quasi alternis requiescens, ac meridians: diem diffindens, ut Varro loquitur, insititia quiete.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 443. He says that there is a similar kind of fountain in Provence, called Collis Martiensis.

661 There has been considerable difference of opinion among the commentators, both as to the reading of the text and its interpretation, for which I shall refer to the notes of Poinsinet, i. 307, of Hardouin and Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 443, and of Richelet, Ajasson, ii. 402.

662 We have an account of the Troglodytæ in a subsequent part of the work, v. 5. The name is generally applied by the ancients to a tribe of people inhabiting a portion of Æthiopia, and is derived from the circumstance of their dwellings being composed of caverns; a τρωγλὴ and δύνω. Alexandre remarks, that the name was occasionally applied to other tribes, whose habitations were of the same kind; Lemaire, i. 443. They are referred to by Q. Curtius as a tribe of the Æthiopians, situated to the south of Egypt and extending to the Red Sea, iv. 7.

663 Q. Curtius gives nearly the same account of this fountain.

664 The Po derives its water from the torrents of the Alps, and is therefore much affected by the melting of the snow or the great falls of rain, which occur at different seasons of the year; but the daily diminution of the water, as stated by our author, is without foundation.

665 “Fontem ibi intermittentem frustra quæsivit cl. Le Chevalier, Voyage de la Troade, t. i. p. 219.” Lemaire, i. 444.

666 Strabo, in allusion to this circumstance, remarks, that some persons make it still more wonderful, by supposing that this spring is connected with the Nile. We learn from Tournefort, that there is a well of this name in Delos, which he found to contain considerably more water in January and February than in October, and which is supposed to be connected with the Nile or the Jordan: this, of course, he regards as an idle tale. Lemaire.

667 Hardouin informs us, that these warm springs are called “i bagni di Monte Falcone,” or “di S. Antonio.” They are situate so very near the sea, that we may suppose some communication to exist, which may produce the alleged effect. Lemaire.

668 According to Hardouin this is the modern Torre di Pitino; he conceives that the river here mentioned must be the Vomanus. The effect here described is, to a certain extent, always the case with rivers which proceed from mountains that are covered with snow. Lemaire, i. 445.

669 Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25, makes the same remark: the fact would seem to be, that in certain districts the cattle are found to be for the most part white, and in other places black; but we have no reason to suppose that their colour has any connexion with the water which they employ.

670 This is asserted by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. iii. 12. We have a similar statement made by Ælian respecting the Scamander; viii. 21.

671 “Annonæ mutationem significans.”

672 The peculiar nature of the water of the Lyncestis is referred to by many of the ancients: we may suppose that it was strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas. See Ovid, Met. xv. 329-331; also Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 3, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

673 Vitruvius and Athenæus.

674 Calenum was a town in Campania; this peculiar property of its water is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18.

675 Literally, Jovis cultus; as interpreted by Hardouin, “tanquam si dixeris, divinum Jovis munus hunc fontem esse.” Lemaire, i. 447.

676 Seneca affirms its poisonous nature; Nat. Quæst. iii. 25. Q. Curtius refers to a spring in Macedonia of the same name, “quo pestiferum virus emanat.” x. 10.

677 There appears to be some uncertainty respecting the locality of this district; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 447.

678 “Hunc fontem describit eximie Plinius jun. lib. iv. epist. ult. Est ad orientalem Larii lacus plagam, Lago di Como, x mill. pass. a Como.” Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 448.

679 Our author, in a subsequent passage, v. 39, speaks of Cydonea, “cum fonte calido.”

680 According to Hardouin, i. 448, there is a considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to this name: he informs us that “Συναὸς urbs est Magnæ Phrygiæ Ptolemæo, v. 2.”

681 Tacitus gives an account of this oracle as having been visited by Germanicus; Ann. ii. 54.

682 Our author refers to this history in the First book of the present work.

683 “Comparatos scilicet cum aëris externi temperie.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 448.

684 Thin leaves or films of metal have little affinity for water, and have, generally, bubbles of air attached to them; so that, when placed upon the water, the fluid is prevented from adhering to them, and thus they remain on the surface.

685 Depending not upon their absolute, but their specific gravity.

686 Being partly supported by the water.

687 The stone may have floated in consequence of its being full of pores: these are more quickly filled with water when it is broken into small pieces. It was probably of the nature of pumice or some other volcanic product.

688 This is well known to depend upon the commencement of the decomposition of some part of the viscera, by which there is an evolution of gaseous matter.

689 This is an erroneous statement; it is not easy to ascertain what was the source of the error.

690 Rain, as it falls from the clouds, is nearly pure; and rivers, or receptacles of any kind, that are supplied by it, are considerably more free from saline impregnations than the generality of springs.

691 This statement is altogether incorrect.

692 When salt water freezes, it is disengaged from the saline matter which it previously held in solution; a greater degree of cold is therefore required to overcome the attraction of the water for the salt, and to form the ice, than when pure water is congealed.

693 “Celerius accendi.” We can scarcely suppose that by this term our author intended to express the actual burning or inflaming of the water, which is its literal and ordinary meaning. This, however, would appear to be the opinion of Hardouin and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 449. Holland translates it, “made hot and set a-seething,” i. 46; Poinsinet, “s’échauffe le plus vîte,” i. 313; and Ajasson, “plus prompte à s’échauffer,” ii. 217.

694 The temperature of the ocean, in consequence of its great mass and the easy diffusion and mixture of its various parts, may be conceived to be longer in becoming raised or depressed than any particular portion of the land, where contemporary observations may be made.

695 The evaporation that is going on during the heats of summer, and the heavy rains which in many countries fall during the autumn, may produce the effects here described, in confined seas or inlets.

696 The statement is true to a certain extent, as is proved by the well-known experiments of Franklin and others; but the degree of the effect is considerably exaggerated. See the observations of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 450, 451.

697 In the Mediterranean the warm vapours rising from the water and its shores may melt the snow as it descends; but this is not the case in the parts of the main ocean which approach either to the Arctic or the Antarctic regions.

698 The theory of springs is well understood, as depending upon the water tending to rise to its original level, so as to produce an equilibrium of pressure.

699 When we consider the great extent of the base of Ætna, and that the crater is in the form of an inverted cone, we shall perceive that there is ample space for the existence of springs in the lower part of the mountain, without their coming in contact with the heated lava.

700 Samosata is situated on the Euphrates, in the north of Syria.

701 The Petroleum or Bitumen of the modern chemists; it is a tarry substance, more or less fluid, which has probably been produced by carbonaceous matter, as affected by heat or decomposition, below the surface of the earth. Our author has exaggerated its properties and action upon other bodies.

702 Respecting the transaction here mentioned, I shall refer to the note of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 452.

703 The substance here mentioned may be considered as not differing essentially from the Maltha of the last chapter, except in being of a more fluid consistence.

704 The Astaceni are supposed to have inhabited a district near the sources of the Indus, probably corresponding to the modern Cabul.

705 We may conceive of a quantity of inflammable vapour on the surface of the naphtha, which might, in some degree, produce the effect here described.

706 Horace, in one of his Epodes, where he refers to the magical arts of Medea, says, that it was a cloak, “palla,” which was sent to Creüsa; v. 65. So far as there is any foundation for the story, we may suppose that some part of her dress had been impregnated with an inflammable substance, which took fire when she approached the blazing altar.

707 When the volcanos are less active the flame is visible in the night only.

708 The observations of modern travellers and geologists have proved, that the number of extinct volcanos is considerably greater than those now in action.

709 Chimæra was a volcano in Lycia, not far from the Xanthus; the circumstance of its summit emitting flame, while its sides were the resort of various savage animals, probably gave rise to the fabulous story of the Centaur of this name, a ferocious monster who was continually vomiting forth flame.

710 The word in the text is “fœnum”; Hardouin suggests that the meaning of the author may have been litter, or the refuse of stables. Lemaire, i. 454.

711 The emission of a gas, which may be kindled by the application of flame, is a phænomenon of no very rare occurrence; but the effects are, no doubt, much exaggerated. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 454.

712 The country of the Bactrians was a district to the S.E. of the Caspian Sea, and to the north of the sources of the Indus, nearly corresponding to the modern Bucharia.

713 There would appear to be some uncertainty as to the locality of this place: our author derived his statement from the writer of the treatise de Mirab. Auscult.

714 “Caminis.”

715 Probably the crater of a former volcano.

716 This mountain, as well as the Θεῶν ὄχημα mentioned below, has been supposed to be situated on the west of Africa, near Sierra Leone, or Cape Verd; but, as I conceive, without sufficient authority. See Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 455.

717 “Internus.” “In interiore nemore abditus.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 455.

718 If this account be not altogether fabulous, the appearance here described may be, perhaps, referred to the combustion of an inflammable gas which does not acquire a very high temperature.

719 We have an account of this place in Strabo, vii. 310. Our author has already referred to it in the 96th chapter of this book, as a pool or lake, containing floating islands; and he again speaks of it in the next chapter.

720 We have an account of this volcano in Ælian, Var. Hist. xiii. 16. It would appear, however, that it had ceased to emit flame previous to the calamitous events of which it was supposed to be the harbinger.

721 This circumstance is mentioned by Dion Cassius, xli. 174. We may conceive that a sudden influx of water might force up an unusually large quantity of the bitumen.

722 We have a full account of this circumstance in Strabo, vi. 277.

723 “Currum deorum Latine licet interpretari.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 456.

724 “torrentesque solis ardoribus flammas egerit;” perhaps the author may mean, that the fires of the volcano assist those of the sun in parching the surface of the ground.

725 “Tot rogis terræ?” in reference to the remark in a former chapter, “natura terras cremat.”

726 “Humani ignes,” according to Hardouin, “Hi nostri ignes, quos vitæ usus requirit, ut Tullius ait de Nat. Deor. ii. 67;” Lemaire, i. 457.

727 This is the mode which many savage tribes employ for exciting flame.

728 It is not known whether the Scantia was a river or a lake, or where it was situated; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 457.

729 This may have been owing to the emission of an inflammable gas which burns at a comparatively low temperature, as was observed on a former occasion.

730 These are said by Columella, xi. 3, to occur in August; the statement as to the fire occurring on these particular days we may presume is erroneous.

731 Aricia was a town in Campania, near the modern Lake of Nemi: this place, as well as the other places mentioned by our author, were probably of volcanic origin.

732 Sidicinum was a town in Campania, also called Teanum; probably the modern Teano.

733 Egnatia was a town in Calabria, on the coast of the Adriatic: the circumstance mentioned by our author is ridiculed by Horace, in his well-known lines, Sat. i. 5, 97; but it is not improbable that there may be some foundation for it.

734 This circumstance is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18. The altar was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lacinian Promontory, at the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Tarentum, the modern Capo delle Colonne.

735 This may be referred to the inflammable vapours mentioned above, unless we regard the whole narrative as fabulous.

736 See Livy, i. 39, and Val. Maximus, i. 6. 2. Although it would be rash to pronounce this occurrence and the following anecdotes respecting Marcius to be absolutely impossible, we must regard them as highly improbable, and resting upon very insufficient evidence.

737 In the 66th chapter of this book.

738 In the estimate of distances I have given the numbers as they occur in the text of Lemaire, although, in many cases, there is considerable doubt as to their accuracy. See the observations of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 460.

739 Artemidorus was an Ephesian, who wrote on geography; see Hardouin’s Index Auct., Lemaire, i. 167.

740 Isidorus was a native of Nicæa; he appears to have been a writer on various topics in natural history, but not much estimated; see Hardouin’s Index Auct., in Lemaire, i. 194.

741 The modern Cape St. Vincent and Cape Finisterre.

742 This was a city on the Sinus Issicus, the present Gulf of Aiasso, situated, according to Brotier, between the sites of the modern towns of Scanderoon and Rosos. See Lemaire, i. 461.

743 Respecting this and the other distances mentioned in this chapter, I may refer the reader to the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 461.

744 It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the calculations of our author do not indicate the real distance between the extreme points of the habitable parts of the globe, as known to the ancients, but the number of miles which must be passed over by a traveller, in going from place to place; in the first instance, a considerable part of the way by sea, and, in the second, almost entirely by land.

745 It appears to be difficult to ascertain the identity of the place here mentioned; I may refer to the remarks of Hardouin and Brotier in Lemaire, i. 464.

746 The same remarks may be made upon this and the following numbers as upon those in the former paragraph; for further information I shall refer my readers to the notes of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 465-468.

747 There is great uncertainty respecting the locality of the Thule of the ancients; there was, in fact, nothing known respecting the locality or identity of any of the places approaching to the Arctic circle; the name appears to have been vaguely applied to some country lying to the north of the habitable parts of Europe. In note 522, p. 109, I have already had occasion to offer some remarks on the locality of Thule. Our author speaks of Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 39.

748 It is probable, that these supposed “immense islands,” if they were not entirely imaginary, were the countries of Sweden and Norway, the southern extremities alone of which had been visited by the ancients.

749 Strabo, ii.; Vitruvius, i. 6; Macrobius, in Somn. Scip. ii. 20.

750 Our author has previously referred to Eratosthenes, in the 76th chapter of this book.

751 Our author has referred to Hipparchus, in the 9th chapter of this book.

752 “Aliter, inquit, et cautius multo Dionysodorus est audiendus, qui miraculo solo nititur, quam Hipparchus et Eratosthenes, qui geometricis nituntur principiis.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 469. Nothing further is known of Dionysodorus; see Hardouin’s Index Auct. in Lemaire, i. 123.

753 Marcus Terentius Varro. He was born B.C. 116, espoused the cause of Pompey against Cæsar, and served as his lieutenant in Spain. He afterwards became reconciled to Cæsar, and died in the year B.C. 26. He is said to have written 500 volumes, but nearly all his works are lost (destroyed, it is said, by order of Pope Gregory VII.). His only remains are a Treatise on Agriculture, a Treatise on the Latin Tongue, and the fragments of a work called Analogia.

754 C. Sulpicius Gallus was Consul in the year 166 B.C. He wrote a Roman History, and a work on the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

755 Titus Vespasianus, the Emperor, to whom Pliny dedicates his work. His poem is mentioned in c. 22 of this Book. See pages 1, 2, and 55 of the present volume.

756 It is most probable that Quintus Ælius Pætus Tubero is here meant. He was son-in-law, and, according to Cicero, nephew of Æmilius Paulus, and Consul in the year B.C. 167. There are two other persons found mentioned of the name of Q. Ælius Tubero.

757 The freedman and amanuensis of Cicero. He was a man of great learning, and was supposed to have invented short-hand. He also wrote a Life of Cicero.

758 Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. He was Consul in the year B.C. 133, and was a stout opponent of the Gracchi. He wrote Annals of the History of Rome from the earliest periods.

759 Livy, the well-known Roman historian.

760 He was the intimate friend of Cicero, and wrote Chronicles or Annals, in three books, a Life of Cicero, and some other historical works. A work still exists, called “Lives of Eminent Commanders,” which is ascribed sometimes to him and sometimes to one Æmilius Probus, a writer of the reign of Theodosius. The latter probably abridged the original work of Nepos.

761 Statius Sebosus. He is mentioned by Cicero as the friend of Catulus. He wrote a work called the “Periplus,” and another on the Wonders of India.

762 A Roman historian and lawyer, who flourished about B.C. 124. He wrote a Book of Annals, in which was contained a valuable account of the Second Punic war. This work was epitomized by Brutus and held in high estimation by the Emperor Adrian.

763 Fabianus Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and naturalist, whose works are highly commended by Pliny and Seneca. He wrote a History of Animals, and a book on Natural Causes.

764 Quintus Valerius Antias. He flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote the Annals of Rome, down to the time of Sylla.

765 Marcus Licinius Crassus Mucianus. He was instrumental in raising the Emperor Vespasian to the throne, and was Consul in the years A.D. 52, 70, and 74. He published three Books of Epistles, and a History in eleven Books, which appears to have treated chiefly of Eastern affairs.

766 Aulus Cæcina. He was sent into exile by Cæsar, joined the Pompeians in Africa, and was taken prisoner by Cæsar, but his life was spared. Cicero wrote several letters to him, and commends his abilities. His work appears to have been on Divination as practised by the Etrurians.

767 He appears to have been a diviner or soothsayer of Etruria, and to have written a work on Etruscan prodigies.

768 He also wrote a work on Etruscan divination, but it does not appear that any thing further is known of him.

769 Sergius Paulus. He is also mentioned in the Index to the 18th Book. Nothing further seems to be known of him.

770 The greatest, with the exception of Aristotle, of the Greek Philosophers, and the disciple of Socrates.

771 A native of Nicæa in Bithynia, who flourished B.C. 160. He is called the “Father” of Astronomy. He wrote a Commentary on the Phænomena of Aratus and Eudoxus, which is still extant. His works, including those on the Lunar Month and the Fixed Stars, have not come down to us. His Catalogue of the Stars is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy.

772 Timæus of Locri in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, said to have been the instructor of Plato. He wrote a work on Mathematics. A work “On the Soul of the World and of Nature,” which is still extant, has been ascribed to him, but on doubtful grounds.

773 An astronomer and peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria. He was employed by Julius Cæsar to superintend his revision of the Calendar. It is supposed that he wrote a work on the Celestial Revolutions, and a Commentary on the works of Aristotle.

774 A priest, mathematician, and astrologer of Egypt. A Letter on the Astrological Sciences, written by him to King Necepsos, is said to be extant in the Royal Library at Vienna, as also a work called the “Organum Astrologicum,” dedicated to the same king. Juvenal seems to use his name as a common term for an astrologer.

775 He is mentioned by Julius Firmicus as “a most just emperor of Egypt, and a very good astronomer.” A work by him is quoted by Galen in his tenth Book on Simples, but it was most probably of spurious origin.

776 “Pythagoricis” here may either mean the works of the followers of Pythagoras of Samos, or the books which were written by that philosopher. Pliny, in Books 19, 20, and 24, speaks of several writings of Pythagoras, and Diogenes Laertius mentions others; but it is more generally supposed that he wrote nothing, and that everything that passed by his name in ancient times was spurious.

777 A Stoic philosopher of Apamea in Syria. He was the instructor of Cicero, and the friend of Pompey. He wrote works on history, divination, the tides, and the nature of the gods. Some fragments only have survived.

778 Of Miletus, was born B.C. 610, and was the successor of Thales, the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy. He is said to have first taught the obliquity of the ecliptic and the use of the gnomon.

779 A philosopher of Rhodes or Byzantium. Seneca says that he boasted of having studied astronomy among the Chaldeans. He is mentioned by Varro and Columella as having written on rural matters, and is praised by Censorinus.

780 Of Alexandria, the great geometrician, and instructor of Ptolemy I. He was the founder of the mathematical school of Alexandria.

781 He was a Greek by birth, and lived in the time of Nero. He is extolled by Tacitus, B. 14, for his superlative wisdom, beyond which nothing is known of him.

782 Of Cnidus, an astronomer and legislator who flourished B.C. 366. He was a friend and disciple of Plato, and said to have been the first who taught in Greece the motions of the planets. His works on astronomy and geometry are lost, but his Phænomena have been preserved by Aratus, who turned his prose into verse.

783 Born at Abdera in Thrace, about B.C. 460. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory, and looked upon peace of mind as the summum bonum of mortals. He wrote works on the nature and organization of the world, on physics, on contagious maladies, on the chameleon, and on other subjects.

784 A Grecian astronomer. A work of his, called “Apotelesmatica,” is said to be preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna.

785 An astrologer of Rhodes, patronized by Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote a work on Stones, and a History of Egypt. Tacitus, in his Annals, B. vi., speaks highly of his skill in astrology.

786 A geographer of Antioch, and an opponent of the views of Eratosthenes. Cicero declares that he himself was unable to understand a thousandth part of his work.

787 A Peripatetic philosopher and geographer, of Messina in Sicily. He studied under Aristotle and wrote several works, the principal of which was an account of the history, geography, and moral and religious condition of Greece. A few fragments only are extant.

788 Of Syracuse, the most famous mathematician of antiquity, born B.C. 287. A few only of his works have come down to us, published at Oxford in 1792, by Torelli.

789 Born either at Astypalæa or Ægina. He was chief pilot of the fleet of Alexander during the descent of the Indus and the voyage to the Persian Gulf. He wrote a work called the “Alexandropædia,” or Education of Alexander. In his description of what he saw in India, many fables and falsehoods are said to have been interwoven, so much so that the work (which is now lost) is said to have resembled a fable more than a history.

790 Of Cyrene, born B.C. 276. He was invited from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes, to become keeper of the library at Alexandria. He was a man of most extensive erudition, as an astronomer, geographer, philosopher, historian and grammarian. All of his writings have perished, with the exception of a few fragments on geographical subjects.

791 Of Massilia, now Marseilles, a celebrated navigator who flourished about the time of Alexander the Great. In his voyages he visited Britain and Thule, of which he probably gave some account in his work “On the Ocean.” He has been wrongfully accused of falsehood by Strabo. Another work written by him was his “Periplus,” or ‘Circumnavigation’ from Gades to the Tanais, probably, in this instance, the Elbe.

792 Of Halicarnassus, the father of Grecian history; born B.C. 484. Besides his great work which has come down to us, he is supposed to have written a history of Arabia.

793 Probably the most learned of the Greek philosophers. His works were exceedingly numerous, and those which have survived to us treat of natural history, metaphysics, physical science, ethics, logic, and general literature.

794 A native of Cnidus in Caria, and private physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, having been made prisoner by him at the battle of Cunaxa. He wrote a History of Persia in 23 books, which, with the exception of a small abridgement by Photius and a few fragments, is now lost. He also wrote a book on India. He was much censured, probably without sufficient reason, for the credulity displayed in his works.

795 Of Ephesus, a geographer, who lived about B.C. 100. He wrote a Periplus, and a work on Geography; a few fragments only of abridgements of these have survived.

796 Of Charax in Parthia, of which country he wrote an account which still exists. He flourished in the reign of Augustus.

797 Of Chios, a celebrated historian, and disciple of the orator Isocrates. His principal works were a History of Greece, and a Life of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

798 Now the Straits of Gibraltar.

799 This is said more especially in reference to the western parts of Asia, the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients. His meaning is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far north as Europe, nor so far south as Africa.

800 Now the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Pliny’s meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as belonging to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to assign these rivers as the extreme eastern boundaries of the internal or Mediterranean sea.

801 At no spot are the Straits less than ten miles in width; although D’Anville makes the width to be little less than five miles. This passage of our author is probably in a corrupt state.

802 This probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the present day.

803 Probably the point called ‘Punta del Sainar’ at the present day.

804 Now called Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho.

805 The Rock of Gibraltar.

806 The fable was that they originally formed one mountain, which was torn asunder by Hercules, or as Pliny says, “dug through.”

807 This was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that it is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it.

808 He probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell’ Armi. Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the promontory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano.

809 So called from the Bætis, now the Guadalquivir or Great River.

810 The situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to have been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or Moxacar. It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus.

811 So called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present Tarragona.

812 Corresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of Portugal.

813 Now Gaudiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, “the river Ana.”

814 According to Hardouin this place is the modern town of Montiel, but Pinet and D’Anville make it the same as Alhambra.

815 According to modern writers it conceals itself in this manner for a distance of fifteen miles.

816 From the Balearic Channel to the Gulf of Gascony or Bay of Biscay.

817 Probably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name; Hardouin considers it the same as the Sierra de los Vertientes.

818 Probably the Sierra Morena.

819 The Monte de Toledo.

820 The Sierra de las Asturias.

821 The present Cadiz. It was originally a Phœnician colony.

822 Now Cordova.

823 Now Ecija.

824 Now Seville.

825 The Roman colonies or colonies “civium Romanorum” are those here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens, the town in which they lived being founded under the supervision of the Roman magistracy.

826 “Municipia.” These were towns in conquered countries which were not founded by the Romans, but whose inhabitants retained their original institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights of Roman citizens; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less degree from payment of tribute.

827 “Latium;” also called “Jus Latii” and “Latinitas.” This was the name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy, before the time of the Social War. Indeed the Latinus held a kind of intermediate state between the Civis Romanus with all his rights, and the peregrinus or foreigner with all his disabilities. These Latin rights were afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but retained their original name.

828 The free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at liberty to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal government, though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges of Roman citizens.

829 “Fœderati civitates;” the inhabitants of which were called ‘fœderati’ or ‘socii.’ They were in alliance with the Romans, but in some cases paid them tribute in the same manner as the ‘stipendiaria’ next mentioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights.

830 From the numerous creeks or æstuaries with which the coast is here indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D’Anville considers it to be the same with the present town of Moguer; other commentators have suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.

831 The Odiel and the Tinto; the Urium being supposed to be the same with the Tinto of the present day.

832 Some readings have “Hareni montes,” and others “Arenæ montes,” the “mountains of sand.” There is no doubt that the sandy heights or downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day “Dunes” by the French, and by the natives “Arenas gordas.”

833 Probably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of Cadiz, skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the coast between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied in part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda.

834 In the Fourth Book, c. 36.

835 The present Cape Trafalgar.

836 Hardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while others have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others again identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably lies too far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably its site.

837 Hardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the present Tarifa is here meant; it is more probable however that D’Anville is right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia.

838 Probably the present Tarifa.

839 The exact site of Carteia is unknown; but it is generally supposed to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on the west of the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or Gibraltar; and upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo, about half-way between Algesiras and Gibraltar.

840 We learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as Carteia; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the Phœnician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it, and that in it originated the ‘Tarshish’ of Scripture, an appellation apparently given to the whole of the southern part of the Spanish peninsula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place more in conformity with the original Phœnician name.

841 By the “inland sea” Pliny means the Mediterranean, in contradistinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz.

842 The ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the east bank of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to.

843 With its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present Marbella, situate on the Rio Verde.

844 Probably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo de Fuengirola.

845 The present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river Guadalquivirejo is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from the city, it is more probable that Guadalmedina, which is much nearer to it, is the stream alluded to.

846 Not improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name. Hardouin thinks that the place is the modern Torrox on the Fiu Frio, and D’Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde.

847 Most probably the present Almunecar, but it is uncertain. D’Anville says the present Torre de Banas; others have suggested the town of Motril.

848 Now Salobrena.

849 Either the present Adra or Abdera: it is uncertain which.

850 Probably the present Mujacar. D’Anville suggests Almeria.

851 Also called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly Phœnician.

852 The Greek Λύσσα, “frantic rage” or “madness.” The etymologies here suggested are puerile in the extreme.

853 Plutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Iberica of Sosthenes, tells us that, “After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the present Spain], he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its name and called the country Pania, after himself, which afterwards became corrupted into Spania.”

854 He alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which Diodorus Siculus makes mention; also his courtship of the nymph Pyrene, the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenæan mountains, which thence derived their name.

855 It is unknown where this town was situate; Hardouin and D’Anville think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once an episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, mentioned in c. 4, were probably inhabitants of a different place. D’Anville in his map has two Mentisas, one ‘Oretana,’ the other ‘Bastitana.’

856 According to D’Anville, the place now called Toia.

857 Now the Segura.

858 ‘Nova’ or ‘New’ Carthage, so called from having been originally founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a little to the west of the Saturni Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It was taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.

859 The present Lorca.

860 This place is even now called by the inhabitants Sepulcro de Scipion. Cneius Cornelius Scipio Calvus, after the defeat of his brother P. Cornelius Scipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of Asdrubal and Mago, fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to by the troops of Asdrubal, and he perished in the flames.

861 So called from the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned.

862 It is unknown where this place stood; Medina Sidonia has been suggested.

863 Probably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen, according to Pinet.

864 D’Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona; but more probably it was the village of Arjonilla, two leagues south of Andujar. Gruter has an inscription found here, “MUNIC. ALBENSE URGANON.”

865 There were five cities of this name in Spain. Hardouin thinks that this is the modern Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova.

866 Most probably the modern Sierra de Elvira, though some writers have suggested the city of Granada.

867 Probably near the modern Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the present Granada.

868 Poinsinet thinks that this is the present Ecija, but other writers take it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga.

869 Perhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the modern Faventia and Velez.

870 Probably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of the Rio Genil.

871 Probably near Aguilar on the river Cabra; or else the present Teba, between Osuna and Antequera.

872 Agla the Less.

873 Probably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns are not known.

874 “The Encampment in the Vineyards.” Probably this was the same as the Castra Postumiana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spanish War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the present Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz.

875 In some readings “Episibrium.” Probably the present Espeja.

876 Its present site is unknown.

877 According to D’Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues north of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real.

878 The present Huesca, according to Hardouin; more probably, however, Huector, on the banks of the river Genil.

879 Perhaps Escusar, five leagues from Granada. But according to some it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo.

880 Called Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la Ronda, but Pinet says Stoponda.

881 The sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.

882 In relation to the ‘conventus juridicus,’ we may here observe that under the Roman sway, in order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was so called, as also ‘forum’ or ‘jurisdictio’. At certain times of the year fixed by the proconsul or chief magistrate, the people assembled in the chief town of the district (whence the name ‘conventus’), upon which judges were selected to try the causes of litigant parties.

883 Probably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo, in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were prevalent in some parts of Spain.

884 This place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the ground by the troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had made, and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably stood about four miles from the present city of Baeza.

885 The sites of this place and the next are unknown.

886 Most probably the present town of Porcuna. Ubeda or Ubedos has also been suggested.

887 The present town of Montoro.

888 Now Alcoorrucen, near Perabad.

889 Ansart suggests that the reading is not Sacili of the Martiales, but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba Æstuaria, previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The site of Onoba is unknown.

890 Cordova was so called from the great number of patricians, who were among the original colonists, when it was founded by Marcellus. To the present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great Captain Gonzalo de Cordova used to say, that “other towns might be better to live in, but there was none better to be born in.” It was the birth-place of Lucan and the two Senecas.

891 The site of these two places is unknown at the present day.

892 Now called by the similar name of Genil or Xenil.

893 Perhaps the present Alcolea.

894 Perhaps the Cantillana of the present day: there is, however, the greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places.

895 According to Hardouin, the modern city of Penaflor: D’Anville places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora.

896 Now Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville; called by the lower classes Santi-pone.

897 Now Seville. This colony was founded by Julius Cæsar, and also bore the name of Julia Romula.

898 Or north side of the river.

899 Probably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio.

900 ‘The [good] genius of Julius,’ probably meaning Cæsar. Nothing seems to be known of its site.

901 Caura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville.

902 Probably the Rio Guadalete.

903 Either the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San Lucar.

904 Probably the present Bonania.

905 Probably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades; and its importance may be judged from its appellation ‘Regia’ or ‘royal,’ and its numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there.

906 It is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres. Some geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta.

907 Now Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Bætis, some distance south of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil.

908 The site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th; which were called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ from being composed of the men of two legions originally.

909 “The Valour of Julius.” Sanson places it not far from Miragenil.

910 “The Fame of Julius.” Perhaps the present Olivera, or else Teba, six leagues to the south of Estepa.

911 The present city of Ossuna. “Genua Urbanorum” would seem to mean “the knees of the citizens.” Though all the MSS. agree in this reading, it probably is an error for “gemina Urbanorum,” and it may have been a colony of one of the legions called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ as previously mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly have originated in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives of the city of Rome.

912 The use of the word fuit, ‘was,’ implies that the place had been destroyed. Cneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great, was defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed. Pompey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed to be the modern village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to denote its site.

913 Now Alameda; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija.

914 Now Estepa, six leagues from Ecija.

915 Perhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona; the sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown.

916 Sanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near Almagia, between Malaga and Antiqueira.

917 The Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the west of Estremadura, as far as the city of Badajoz.

918 Probably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an easterly direction.

919 The exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he probably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred rites, language, and names of towns with the Celtiberians; though it had become the usage in Bætica more generally to distinguish the towns by their Roman names.

920 “The Fame of Julius.” Its site is not known.

921 “The Concord of Julius.” Probably the same as the modern Valera la Vega, near Frejenal.

922 Probably meaning “Restored by Julius.” Nothing is known of its site.

923 According to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly be Medina de las Torres.

924 Probably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor.

925 The tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of the modern San Nicolo del Puerto.

926 Calentum was their town; probably the present Cazalla near Alaniz. This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.

927 The ruins two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to be those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatre, and numerous coins are found here.

928 Probably the present Ronda la Vieja.

929 Identified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of several of the following places are unknown.

930 The Azuaga of modern times; but, according to Hardouin, Argallen.

931 According to Hardouin this was on the site of the modern Fuente de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova.

932 This has been identified by inscriptions with the modern Villa de Capilla.

933 According to Hardouin, the modern Almaden de la Plata.

934 Probably the same as the modern Monte Major.

935 The ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa, near Bornos, in the vicinity of Seville.

936 According to Hardouin, the same as the modern Las Cabezas, not far from Lebrija.

937 The sites of these two towns are unknown. Bæsippo, Barbesula and Callet have been already mentioned.

938 The ruins of Saguntia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres della Frontera, on the river Guadalete; they bear their ancient name under the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c. 1, says that Oleastro was a grove near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona.

939 We may here mention for the more correct information of the reader that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being five English feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the English statute mile.

940 Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.

941 Now Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place.

942 This was the ‘porticus Octaviæ,’ which, having been commenced by his sister Octavia, the wife of Marcellus and Antony, was completed by Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of Marcellus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been built by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, and enclosing the two temples of Juno and of Jupiter Stator. It contained a public library, in which the Senate often met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan, mentioned by Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great number of statues, paintings, and other works of art, which, with the library, were destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus.

943 Nova Carthago or New Carthage, now Carthagena.

944 Now Zaragoza or Saragossa, on the right bank of the river Ebro. Its original name was Salduba, but it was changed in honour of Augustus, who colonized it after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25.

945 This was the most remote place of any consideration in Celtiberia, on the west. Its ruins are still to be seen on the summit of a hill surrounded with rocks, forming a natural wall between Corunna del Conde and Pennalda de Castro.

946 This was Asturica Augusta, the chief city of the nation of the Astures, and situate on one of the tributaries of the Astura, now Esta. On its site is situate the present Astorga: its ruins are very extensive.

947 Now Lugo.

948 Or Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city there are the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre.

949 Probably the present town of Vera near Muxacra.

950 The “Promontory of Saturn,” now Cabo de Palos.

951 D’Anville takes this place to be the port of Vacur; if so, the distance from Cape Palos is exactly 170 miles.

952 Now Segura.

953 The modern town of Elche was probably built from the ruins of this place.

954 Now called the Gulf of Alicant.

955 With the Arabian El prefixed, this has formed the name of the famous port of Alicant.

956 Now Denia, a thriving town.

957 Now called the Xucar.

958 Now called Albufera.

959 The present city of Valencia.

960 Or Turia, now the Guadalaviar.

961 Or Saguntus, famed for the fidelity of its inhabitants to the Roman cause: after a siege of nine months, rather than submit to the Carthaginians under Hannibal, they set fire to their town and perished in the flames, B.C. 219. It was rebuilt eight years afterwards and made a Roman colony. The ruins of the ancient town, which was said to have been originally founded by Greeks from Zacynthus, are still to be seen, and the ancient walls (muri veteres) give name to the present Murviedro, which is built on its site.

962 Now the Murviedro, which flows past the city of that name and the town of Segorbe.

963 Dertosa, the present Tortosa, is supposed to have been inhabited by them.

964 Now the Ebro.

965 Hardouin places this on the site of the modern Fuente de Ivero. The Ebro takes its rise in the Val de Vieso.

966 According to D’Anville, the present Logrono. At present the Ebro only becomes navigable at Tudela, 216 miles from the sea. Other writers, however, take Varia to be the present Valtierra, near Tudela.

967 Or the Subur, now the Francoli. It flows into the sea at the port of Tarraco, now Tarragona.

968 The more ancient commentators think that Carthago Vetus, or the colony of Old Carthage (now Carta la Vieja), is here alluded to, but more probably it is Carthago Nova that is meant.

969 On the Subi, previously mentioned; now called Villa Nova.

970 Now the Llobregat.

971 Their territory was situate around the present Gulf of Ampurias.

972 Their chief cities were Gerunda, the present Gerona, and Ausa or Vicus Ausæ, now Vic d’Osona.

973 In the country beyond Gerona.

974 Living in the upper valley of the river Sicoris or Segre, which still retains, from them, the name of Cerdague.

975 The people of the modern Navarre and Guipuzcoa.

976 In the later writers Barcelo, now Barcelona. It was said to have been originally founded by Hercules, and afterwards rebuilt by Hamilcar Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Its name as a Roman colony was Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino. The modern city stands somewhat to the east of the ancient one.

977 The modern Badalona, two leagues from Barcelona.

978 On the sea-shore,—the present Pineda.

979 Now the Tordera.

980 The modern city of Blanos stands on its site.

981 Probably the present Ter or Tet.

982 The modern Ampurias. We learn from Strabo that a wall divided the town of the Greeks from that of the old inhabitants. It was the usual landing-place for travellers from Gaul. It was originally colonized by the Phocæans from Massilia or Marseilles.

983 Hardouin says that the Ticher or Tichis is the same with the modern Ter, but in such case Pliny would have mentioned it before coming to Emporiæ. Its present name however does not appear to be accurately known.

984 A promontory extending from the Pyrenæan chain, on which a temple of Venus was situate. It is now called Cabo de Cruz. The distance mentioned by Pliny is probably too great.

985 The people of the present Tortosa.

986 Probably not the same people as the Edetani, in whose district Saguntum and Valencia were situate.

987 The people of Gerunda or Gerona.

988 They are nowhere else mentioned. Ukert supposes that their city stood in the district between the Sicoris and Nucaria.

989 Their city was Tiara Julia.

990 The people of Aquæ Calidæ or the ‘Hot Springs,’ called at the present day Caldes, four leagues from the city of Barcelona.

991 Ptolemy places Bæcula between Ausa and Gerunda.

992 The people of the present Belchite.

993 The people of the present Xelsa, on the Ebro.

994 The inhabitants of Calagurris, now Calahorra, a city of the Vascones, on the banks of the Ebro. They remained faithful to Sertorius to the last, and after slaughtering their wives and children and eating their flesh, their city was taken and destroyed; which event put an end to the Sertorian war. It was called “Nassica,” in contradistinction to Calagurris Fibularia, which is afterwards mentioned by Pliny. The latter is mentioned by Cæsar as forming one community with Osca (now Huesca), and was probably the present Loarre, though some writers take the first-named Calagurris to be that place, and the latter one to be the present Calahorra.

995 The people of Ilerda, the present Lerida, on the Sicoris or Segre. It is memorable for its siege by Cæsar, when the Pompeian forces under Afranius and Petreius had retired thither. It was a most flourishing city, though in the times of the later Roman emperors it had fallen into decay.

996 The people of the present Huesca.

997 The inhabitants of Turiazo, the present Tarazona, five leagues south of Tudela.

998 The people of Cascantum, the present town of Cascante in Navarre.

999 The people of Ergavica. Its ruins, at the confluence of the Guadiela and Tagus, are still to be seen, and are called Santaver. By some writers this place is considered to be the same as the modern Fraga, on the river Cinca, five leagues from Lerida.

1000 The people of Graccuris. Its former name of Ilurcis was changed in honour of Sempronius Gracchus, who placed new settlers there after the conquest of Celtiberia. It is supposed to be the same as the modern Agreda, four leagues from Tarazona.

1001 The people of Leonica, probably the modern Alcaniz, on the river Guadalope, in Arragon.

1002 The people of Tarraga, the present Tarrega, nine leagues east of Lerida, in Catalonia.

1003 The people of Arcobriga, now Los Arcos, in Navarre, five leagues south of Estella.

1004 Perhaps the same as the Andosini, a people mentioned by Polybius, B. iii. c. 35, as situate between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. There is a small town of Navarre called Androilla.

1005 The people probably of the site now occupied by Huarte Araquil, six leagues to the west of Pampeluna.

1006 Probably the same as the Bursaones of Livy, the Bursavolenses of Hirtius, and the Bursadenses of Ptolemy. Their exact locality is unknown.

1007 Mention has been made of Calagurris Fibularensis or Fibulicensis under Calagurris Nassica: see p. 168.

1008 The people of Complutum, the modern Alcala de Henares, on the river Henares, six leagues to the east of Madrid. It is not quite certain whether it stood on the exact site of Alcala, or on the hill of Zulema, on the other side of the Henares.

1009 The town of Cares, adjoining the more modern one of Puente la Reyna, probably marks their site.

1010 Probably so called from the river Cinga, the modern Cinca: or they may have given their name thereto.

1011 The people probably of the present Mediana on the Ebro, six leagues below Zaragoza.

1012 Their town was Larnum, situate on a river of the same name. It was probably the present Torderas, situate on the river of that name.

1013 Of this people nothing appears to be known. In the old editions the next people mentioned are the “Ispalenses,” but since the time of Hardouin, they have been generally omitted, as wrongly introduced, and as utterly unknown. Spanish coins have however been more recently discovered with the name ‘Sblaie’ or ‘Splaie,’ inscribed in Celtiberian characters, and numismatists are of opinion that they indicate the name of the town of this people, which in Latin would be Ispala. This at all events is the opinion of M. de Sauley.

1014 The people of the present town of Lumbier in Navarre, called by its inhabitants Irumberri.

1015 The people of the present city of Pampeluna.

1016 Carthago Nova, or New Carthage.

1017 The colony of Acci was called Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana. The town of Acci or Accis was on the site of the present Guadix el Viejo, between Granada and Baza. It was colonized by the third and sixth legions under Julius or Augustus, from which it obtained the name of ‘Gemella,’ the origin of which name is previously mentioned, p. 161.

1018 The ruins of this place are supposed to be those seen at Lebazuza or Lezuza, not far from the city of Cuença.

1019 The “jus Italicum” or “Italiæ,” “Italian rights” or “privileges,” differed from the “jus Latinum.” It was granted to provincial towns which were especially favoured by the magistracy of Rome, and consisted of exemption from taxes, a municipal constitution, after the manner of the Italian towns, and many other rights and exemptions.

1020 According to Hardouin, the people of the town formerly called Saliotis, now Cazorla. They are called “Cæsari venales,” from the circumstance of their territory having been purchased by Cæsar.—Castulo or Cazlona has been previously mentioned.

1021 The people of Sætabis, now Xativa in Valencia. This town was famous for its manufacture of fine table-napkins, to which reference is made by Pliny at the beginning of his Introduction addressed to Titus, in his quotation from the lament of Catullus on the loss of his table-napkins which his friends had filched from him. See p. 1 of the present volume.

1022 According to some writers, the present Cuença was the ancient Valeria; but perhaps it was situate at the present village of Valera la Vieja, or Old Valeria, eight leagues south of Cuença.

1023 The people of Alaba, not far from the present town of Ergavica.

1024 They were so called from their town of Basti, now Baza, on the river Guadalentin in Granada.

1025 Their town was probably the present Consuegra, twelve leagues from the city of Toledo.

1026 So called from the promontory Dianium or Artemisium, named from a temple of Diana there situate, and having in its vicinity a town of the same name. The present town of Denia still retains nearly the original name. Its lake, now called Albufera de Valencia, has been previously mentioned, p. 166.

1027 The modern Yniesta marks the site of their town.

1028 The people probably of Eliocroca, now Lorca, on the high road, from Carthago Nova to Castulo.

1029 There were two places of the name of Mentesa, one in the district of the Oritani, and the other in that of the Bastitani or Bastuli.

1030 Ptolemy, B. ii., mentions a city of this nation, called ‘Oretum Germanorum.’ It has been supposed that it was the present Calatrava, five leagues from Ciudad Real.

1031 Supposed to be in the vicinity of the present Calatajud.

1032 The present Toledo.

1033 Their town is supposed to have stood on the site of the present Murcia.

1034 Now Coruña del Conde.

1035 The people of the present Alava on the Ebro.—A small town there still bears the name of Alvana.

1036 This nation is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly they are the Murbogi, mentioned by Ptolemy.

1037 Their town Segisamon was either the present Veyzama in Guipuzcoa, or, more probably, Sasamon, eight leagues north-west of Burgos.

1038 The people of Carissa, on the site of the present Carixa near Seville.

1039 Strabo assigns the Numantini to the Arevacæ, and not the Pelendones. The ruins of the city of Numantia were still to be seen at Puente Garray near the city of Soria, in Hardouin’s time, the 17th century.

1040 D’Anville places their city, Intercatia, at the place called Villa nueva de Azuague, forty miles from the present Astorga; others again make it to have been sixty miles from that place.

1041 Their town was on the site of the modern city of Palencia, on the river Carion.

1042 The people of Cauca, the present Coca, situate between Segovia and Valladolid, on the river Eresma.

1043 This was the chief city of the Cantabri. It has been already mentioned, but we may add that it stood near the sources of the Ebro, on the eminence of Retortillo, south of Reynosa. Five stones still mark the boundaries which divided the territory from that of the Fourth Legio.

1044 Supposed to be the present Briviesca; the site of Tritium does not appear to be known, but it has been suggested that it was near Najara, in the vicinity of Logrono.

1045 It does not appear to be certain whether the Areva was the present Ucero, or the Arlanzon, which flows near Valladolid.

1046 The modern Siguenza.

1047 Now El Burgo d’Osma, in the province of Soria.

1048 This must not be mistaken for the modern Segovia, between Madrid and Valladolid: it was a small town in the vicinity of Numantia.

1049 Probably the present Lerma, on the river Arlanza.

1050 The people of Asturica Augusta, now Astorga, in the province of Leon. The ruins of this fine city are said still to give a perfect idea of a fortified Roman town.

1051 Their chief city stood on the site of the present Cigarrosa, or San Estevan de Val de Orres. Its ruins are still to be seen, and a Roman bridge, the people preserving a tradition that an old town once stood there called Guigurra.

1052 The people of Lance or Lancia, probably the present Lollanco or Mansilla; though Oviedo has been suggested. This however may be the Ovetum mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiv. c. 17.

1053 Mentioned by Pliny in B. xix. c. 2, as famous for their flax. Their locality near the coast does not appear to be exactly known. The Pæsici previously mentioned were situate on the peninsula of Cabo de Penas.

1054 Now the city of Lugo in Gallicia.

1055 The people of Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city are the remains of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre. This people probably derived their name from their fashion of wearing braccæ, “breeches” or “trowsers,” like their neighbours of Gallia Braccata. The exact localities of the various other tribes here mentioned do not appear to be exactly known.

1056 Our author is mistaken here, even making allowance for the shortness of the Roman mile (1618 yards), as the length is only 470 miles. Coastwise it is 620.

1057 Now Oyarzun. It is also mentioned in B. iv. c. 34.

1058 He is also in error here; for, taken in a straight line, this distance is but 210 miles.

1059 The distance is about 560 miles.

1060 It may be worth while here to take some notice of the mineral productions of Spain in modern times, from which we shall be able to form a more accurate judgement as to the correctness of the statement here made by Pliny. Grains of gold are still to be found in the rivers Tagus and Douro; but there is not found sufficient of the precious metal to pay for the search. Silver is found in the mines of the Guadal canal. Copper and lead are to be found in abundance. There is a mine of plumbago four leagues from Ronda; and tin is found in Gallicia. In every province there are iron mines, those in Biscay being the most remarkable. Lodestone is found in Seville, cobalt on the Pyrenees, quicksilver and cinnabar at Almaden, arsenic in Asturias, and coal in Asturias and Arragon. There are salt-mines at Mingrilla and Cardona; alum is found in Arragon, antimony at Alcaraz. On the Sierra Morena, and in Gallicia, there is saltpetre in numerous localities; amber in Asturias and Valencia, and sulphur in Murcia, Arragon, and Seville. Pipe-clay of a peculiar quality is found in the vicinity of Andujar. Gypsum and marble are found in great abundance, and stone for budding purposes, of the best quality. Amethysts, white cornelians, rubies, agates, garnets, and rock crystals, with other precious stones, are also found in abundance and of the finest quality.

1061 Transparent stone. Further mention is made of it by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 45.

1062 Or Mediterranean.

1063 From the chief city Narbo Martius, and later Narbona, now Narbonne, situate on the river Atax, now Aude. It was made a Roman colony by the Consul Q. Martius B.C. 118, and from him received its surname. It was the residence of the Roman governor of the province and a place of great commercial importance. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient city, but some vestiges of the canal, by which it was connected with the sea at twelve miles’ distance.

1064 From the linen breeches which the inhabitants wore, a fashion which was not adopted by the Romans till the time of the Emperors. Severus wore them, but the use of them was restricted by Honorius.

1065 Still called the ‘Var.’ It divides France from Nice, a province of Sardinia.

1066 Now the Cevennes. They lie as much to the west as the north of Gallia Narbonensis.

1067 The range of the Jura, north of the Lake of Geneva.

1068 Inhabiting the former Comté de Roussillon, or Département des Pyrénées Orientales. They were said to have been originally a Bebrycian or Thracian colony.

1069 Probably the inhabitants of the present Conserans, on the west of the Département de l’Arriége.

1070 Probably the Tech, and the Verdouble, which falls into the Gly.

1071 Probably the present Elne, on the Tech.

1072 The present Castel Roussillon.

1073 The Aude of the present day.

1074 The bodies of water now called Etangs de Bages et de Sigean.

1075 Now the Herault.

1076 Now called the Lez, near the city of Montpellier.

1077 Now called Etangs de Leucate, de Sigean, de Gruissan, de Vendres, de Thau, de Maguelonne, de Perols, de Mauguio, du Repausset; Marais d’Escamandre, de Lermitane et de la Souteyrane, and numerous others.

1078 Now the town of Agde. Strabo also informs us that this place was founded by the Massilians.

1079 This people seems to have inhabited the eastern parts of the departments of l’Arriége and the Haute Garonne, that of Aude, the south of that of Tarn, and of that of Herault, except the arrondissement of Montpellier.

1080 Dalechamp takes this to be Foz les Martigues; but the locality is doubtful. Most probably this is the same place that is mentioned by Strabo as Rhoë, in conjunction with the town of Agathe or Agde, and the Rodanusia of Stephen of Byzantium, who places it in the district of Massilia or Marseilles.

1081 Now the Rhone.

1082 Now the Lake of Geneva.

1083 The modern Saone.

1084 Now the rivers Isère and Durance.

1085 Most probably from Libici, a town in the south of Gaul, of which there are coins in existence, but nothing else seems to be known. At the present day there are four mouths of the Rhone, the most westerly of which is called the “Dead” Rhone; the next the “Lesser” Rhone; the third the “Old” Rhone; and the fourth simply the Rhone. D’Anville considers the “Lesser” Rhone to have been the “Spanish” mouth of the ancients. In consequence of the overflowings of this river there is great confusion upon this subject.

1086 This mouth of the Rhone was much used by the Massilians for the purposes of commerce with the interior of Gaul, and the carriage of the supplies of tin which they obtained thence.

1087 The manner in which Pliny here expresses himself shows that he doubts the fact of such a place having even existed; it is mentioned by none of the preceding geographers, and of those who followed him Stephen of Byzantium is the only one who notices it. An inscription was found however in the reign of Charles V. of France, in which it was stated that Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths, selected Heraclea as his place of residence. On the faith of this inscription, Spon and Ducange have placed Heraclea at the modern Saint-Gilles, and other writers at Saint-Remy, where the inscription was found. Unfortunately, however, Messrs. Devic and Vaissette, in their “History of Languedoc,” have proved that this inscription is of spurious origin.

1088 The “Fossæ Marianæ” are also mentioned by Ptolemy and Solinus; though they differ in the situation which they have respectively assigned them. They were formed by Marius when advancing to dispute the passage of the Rhone with the Cimbri, who had quitted Spain for the purpose of passing the Pyrenees and invading Italy, in the year B.C. 102. There is considerable difficulty in determining their position, but they are supposed to have commenced at the place now called the Camp of Marius, and to have terminated at the eastern mouth of the Rhone near the present Arles.

1089 Pliny is the first who mentions the name of this lake, though previous writers had indicated its existence. Strabo informs us that above the mouth of the Rhone there is a large lake that communicates with the sea, and abounds in fish and oysters. Brotier and D’Anville identify it with the present lake of Martigues or of Berre.

1090 D’Anville takes this place to be the present town of Martigues; Brotier thinks that it was situate on the spot now called Le Cap d’Œil, near the town of Saint-Chamas; and Bouche, the historian of the Province, places it at Marignane, on the east side of the lake already mentioned.

1091 “Campi Lapidei,” called by the natives at the present day “La Crau;” probably from the same Celtic root as our word “Crags;” though Bochart derives it from the Hebrew. Æschylus and Hyginus speak of this combat of Hercules, and Mela relates that being engaged in a mortal struggle with Albion and Geryon, the sons of Neptune, he invoked the aid of Jupiter, on which a shower of stones fell from the heavens and destroyed his antagonists. Those on this plain are said to be the remains of the stony shower. It is supposed by the scientific that many of these stones are aërolites, and that tradition has ingeniously adapted this story to their real origin. The vicinity of Tunbridge Wells presents a somewhat similar appearance.

1092 The people probably of the site of the present isle of Camargue.

1093 They probably inhabited the district south of the Durance, between it and the Rhone.

1094 They inhabited the country in which the present Avignon, Orange, Cavaillon, and perhaps Carpentras are situate.

1095 They are thought by Hardouin to have dwelt in the vicinity of the present town of Talard in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

1096 They inhabited the eastern part of the departments of the Drôme and the Vaucluse.

1097 Their territory comprehended the southern part of the department of the Ain, the department of the Isère, the canton of Geneva, and part of Savoy.

1098 It was said to have been colonized from Phocæa, a town of Ionia in Asia Minor. Lucan in his Third Book more than once falls into the error of supposing that it was colonized from Phocis in Greece.

1099 We learn from Justin, B. xliii., that this privilege, as well as others, and a seat at the public shows, were granted to the Massilians by the Roman Senate, in return for their sympathy and assistance after the city had been taken and plundered by the Gauls.

1100 According to D’Anville the present Cap de l’Aigre, though Mannert takes it to be the Cap de la Croisette.

1101 D’Anville takes this to be the same as the present Port de la Ciotat.

1102 Probably occupying the south-east of the department of the Var. It is supposed by Hardouin that the village of Ramatuelle, near the coast, south of the Gulf of Grimaud, represents the ancient name; and D’Anville and other writers are of the same opinion.

1103 Probably the country around the modern Brignole and Draguignan was inhabited by them.

1104 They inhabited Verignon and Barjols in the southern part of the department of the Var.

1105 D’Anville takes this to be the place called Agaï, between Frejus and La Napoule: but in so doing he disregards the order in which they are given by Pliny.

1106 “The Forum of Julius.” Now Frejus. As its name implies, it was a colony of the Eighth Legion. It was probably called ‘Pacensis,’ on some occasion when peace had happily been made with the original inhabitants, and ‘Classica’ from the fleet being stationed there by Augustus.

1107 Still known as the Argens, from the silvery appearance of the water. It has choked up the harbour with sand, in which probably the ships of Augustus rode at anchor.

1108 They inhabited the coast, in the vicinity of the modern Cannes.

1109 They are supposed to have inhabited the country of Grasse, in the south-east of the department of the Var.

1110 According to Ptolemy they had for their capital the town of Salinæ; which some take to be the modern Saluces, others Castellane, and others again Seillans, according to Holstein and D’Anville.

1111 D’Anville thinks that they lived in the valley of Queyras, in the department of the Hautes Alpes, having a town of the same name.

1112 The Adunicates are supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the department of the Basses Alpes, between the towns of Senez and Digne.

1113 The modern Antibes. Mount Cema is the present Monte-Cemelione.

1114 “Arelate of the Sixth Legion,” a military colony; now the city of Arles. It is first mentioned by Cæsar, who had some ships built there for the siege of Massilia or Marseilles. It was made a military colony in the time of Augustus.

1115 “Beterræ of the Seventh Legion.” The modern town of Beziers.

1116 “Arausio of the Second Legion,” now Orange, a town in the department of Vaucluse.

1117 Now Valence, in the department of the Drôme.

1118 Now Vienne, in the department of the Isère.

1119 Aix, in the department of the Bouches du Rhône.

1120 Avignon, in the Vaucluse.

1121 Apt, in the department of Vaucluse.

1122 Riez, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

1123 The modern Alps, near Viviers, is probably built on the site of this town. The text shows that it was different from Augusta, probably the Alba Augusta mentioned by Ptolemy, though D’Anville supposes them to have been the same place.

1124 Some writers take this place to be the present Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, in the department of the Drôme.

1125 Probably so called from its lofty position, and supposed by D’Anville to have been situate on the modern Mont Ventoux, or “Windy Mountain.” Other writers place it at La Croix Haute, near the city of Avignon.

1126 There is a village in the department of the Var, six leagues from Toulon, called Bormes, not improbably from these people.

1127 The modern Cavaillon, in the department of the Vaucluse.

1128 Now Carcassone, in the department of the Aude.

1129 Probably Saint Tibéry, on the river Hérault.

1130 Now Carpentras. Ptolemy also makes mention of the Memini.

1131 Probably situate on the river Cœnus of Ptolemy, between the eastern mouth of the Rhone and Massilia. Probably the name in Pliny should be “Cœnienses.”

1132 Walckenaer places this people in the vicinity of Cambo, in the arrondissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Basses Pyrenees.

1133 In names similar to this, as Festus remarks, “Forum” has the meaning of “Market;” much as that word is used as a compound in our names, such as Market Drayton, &c. Bouche thinks that by this place is meant the modern Le Canet: but D’Anville takes it to be Gonfaron, a corruption, he thinks, of Voconfaron from the Latin name.

1134 The site of Glanum was about a mile to the south of the village of Saint Remi, between Cavaillon and Arles. On the spot there are the remains of a Roman mausoleum and a triumphal arch.

1135 The people of Luteva, now Lodève, in the department of the Hérault.

1136 “The people of Forum Neronis,” which place has been supposed by some to have been the same with Carpentoracte: D’Anville supposes Forcalquier to have been Forum Neronis, while Walckenaer takes Momas to have been that place. From the text it would appear to have been identical with Luteva.

1137 The modern Nismes, which in its ruins contains abundant marks of its ancient splendour. The family of the Antonines came from this place. The remains of its aqueduct still survive, containing three rows of arches, one above the other, and 180 feet in height.

1138 The people of the present Pézenas, in the department of the Hérault.

1139 Their chief town is supposed to have been Albiga, now Albi, in the department of Tarn.

1140 The inhabitants of the present Senez in the Basses Alpes. De la Saussaye says that their coins read ‘Samnagenses,’ and not ‘Sanagenses,’ and that they inhabited Senas, a town in the vicinity of Aix.

1141 Their chief town was Tolosa, now Toulouse, in the department of the Haute-Garonne.

1142 They probably lived in the vicinity of the present Montauban, in the department of the Tarn et Garonne.

1143 Probably the inhabitants of the site of the modern town of Tarascon. There is, however, considerable doubt as to these two names.

1144 Poinsinet thinks that they occupied Vabres, a place situate in the south of the department of Aveyron.

1145 Now Vaison, in the department of Vaucluse.

1146 “The Grove of Augustus.” This town appears to have been overflowed by the river Druma, which formed a lake on its site. Its remains were still to be seen in the lake in modern times, and from it the town on the margin of the lake takes its name of Le Luc.

1147 Under the name “formula” Pliny perhaps alludes to the official list of the Roman government, which he had consulted for the purposes of accuracy.

1148 Bouche places the site of this people at the village of Avançon, between Chorges and Gap, in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

1149 The present town of Digne, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

1150 It is not known from what points these measurements of our author are taken.

1151 The modern names of these localities will form the subject of consideration when we proceed, in c. 7, to a more minute description of Italy.

1152 This passage is somewhat confused, and may possibly be in a corrupt state. He here speaks of the Apennine Alps. By the “lunata juga” he means the two promontories or capes, which extend east and west respectively.

1153 This seems to be the meaning of “alumna,” and not “nurse” or “foster-mother,” as Ajasson’s translation has it. Pliny probably implies by this antithesis that Rome has been “twice blessed,” in receiving the bounties of all nations of the world, and in being able to bestow a commensurate return. Compared with this idea, “at once the nurse and mother of the world” would be tame indeed!

1154 By adding its deified emperors to the number of its divinities. After what Pliny has said in his Second Book, this looks very much like pure adulation.

1155 Or “Great Greece.” This is a poor and frivolous argument used by Pliny in support of his laudations of Italy, seeing that in all probability it was not the people of Greece who gave this name to certain cities founded by Greek colonists on the Tarentine Gulf, in the south of Italy; but either the Italian tribes, who in their simplicity admired their splendour and magnificence, or else the colonists themselves, who, in using the name, showed that they clung with fondness to the remembrance of their mother-country; while at the same time the epithet betrayed some vanity and ostentation in wishing thus to show their superiority to the people of their mother-country.

1156 The comparison of its shape to an oak leaf seems rather fanciful; more common-place observers have compared it to a boot: by the top (cacumen) he seems to mean the southern part of Calabria about Brundisium and Tarentum; which, to a person facing the south, would incline to the coast of Epirus on the left hand.

1157 The ‘Parma’ or shield here alluded to, would be one shaped like a crescent, with the exception that the inner or concave side would be formed of two crescents, the extremities of which join at the central projection. He says that Cocinthos (now Capo di Stilo) would in such case form the central projection, while Lacinium (now Capo delle Colonne) would form the horn at the extreme right, and Leucopetra (now Capo dell’ Armi) the horn on the extreme left.

1158 The Tuscan or Etrurian sea, and the Adriatic.

1159 The Varus, as already mentioned, was in Gallia Narbonensis, while the Arsia, now the Arsa, is a small river of Istria, which became the boundary between Italy and Illyricum, when Istria was annexed by order of Augustus to the former country. It flows into the Flanaticus Sinus, now Golfo di Quarnero, on the eastern coast of Istria, beyond the town of Castel Nuovo, formerly Nesactium.

1160 Now the Pescara.

1161 Now Palo, a city on the coast of Etruria, eighteen miles from Portus Augusti, at the mouth of the Tiber.

1162 This distance is overstated: the circuit is in reality about 2500 miles.

1163 For instance, from Pola to Ravenna, and from Iadera to Ancona.

1164 Sardinia is in no part nearer to Italy than 140 miles.

1165 Issa, now Lissa, is an island of the Adriatic, off the coast of Liburnia; it is not less than eighty miles distant from the nearest part of the coast of Italy.

1166 That is to say, the south, which was so called by the Romans: the meaning being that Italy extends in a south-easterly direction.

1167 Italy was divided by Augustus into eleven districts; the ninth of which nearly corresponded to the former republic of Genoa.

1168 The modern Nizza of the Italians, or Nice of the French.

1169 Now the Paglione.

1170 Livy mentions four of these tribes, the Celelates, the Cerdiciates, the Apuani, and the Friniates.

1171 Or “Long-haired.” Lucan, B. i. l. 442, 3, refers to this characteristic of the Alpine Ligurians:

Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decora

Crinibus effusis toti prælate Comatæ.

1172 It is probably the ruins of this place that are to be seen at the present day at Cimiez in the vicinity of Nice.

1173 The modern Monaco.

1174 These tribes have been already mentioned in c. 5, as belonging to the province of Gallia Narbonensis.

1175 It is supposed that they dwelt near the present Vinadio in Piedmont.

1176 It is supposed that they inhabited the vicinity of the present town of Chorges, between Embrun and Gap.

1177 They probably dwelt near the modern town of Montserrat.

1178 They probably dwelt near the modern Biela, eight leagues from Verceil in Piedmont.

1179 Some writers place them near the modern city of Casale.

1180 Their locality is supposed by some writers to be near the present Cortemiglia, five leagues from the town of Alba.

1181 Now the Roya, flowing between very high banks.—Lucan, B. ii. l. 422, speaks of the Rutuba as “Cavus,” “flowing in deep cavities.”

1182 Probably the present Vintimiglia.

1183 The modern Arozia.

1184 The present town of Albenga.—Livy, B. xxix. c. 5, calls the inhabitants Albingauni.

1185 Now called Vaï or Ve, and Savona.

1186 The modern Bisagna, which waters Genua, the modern Genoa.

1187 Now the Lavagna, which also washes Genoa.

1188 “The Port of the Dolphin;” now Porto Fino.

1189 Probably the ruins called those of Tregesa or Trigoso are those of Tigullia.

1190 Now Sestri di Levante.

1191 The modern Magra.

1192 Of which they were considered as a chain, and called the Apennine Alps.

1193 Now the Po.

1194 According to D’Anville, now Castel Arqua.

1195 Now Tortona. It was a city of importance, and there are considerable ruins still in existence.

1196 The modern Voghera, upon the river Staffora.

1197 Probably the present Verrua.

1198 Called by the Ligurians Bodincomagus, by the Romans Industria. Its remains are to be found at Monteù di Po, a few miles below Chevasso, on the right bank of the river.

1199 The modern Pollenza, a small town on the river Tenaro near Alba.

1200 Its site has been placed at Chieri near Turin, and at Carrù on the Tanaro, a few miles south of Bene, which is perhaps the most probable.

1201 The modern Valenza.

1202 Placed by D’Anville at Vico near Mondovi, and by other writers at Carmagnole and Saluzzo: but Durandi has shown that the ruins still to be seen near Bene in Piedmont are those of Augusta Vagiennorum. Bene is supposed to be a corruption of Bagienna, the name of the town in the middle ages. The name of the Vagienni also probably survives in that of Viozenna, an obscure place in that vicinity.

1203 Still called Alba; a town near the northern foot of the Apennines. It probably had its appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great, who conferred many privileges on the Cisalpine Gauls. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Helvius Pertinax.

1204 The modern Aste.

1205 The modern Acqui, so called from its mineral springs. It is again mentioned by Pliny in B. XXXI. Numerous remains of the ancient town have been discovered.

1206 Ansart observes that this measurement is nearly correct.

1207 For an account of this see Herodotus, B. i. c. 94, Tacitus, Ann. B. iv. c. 55, and Velleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 1. These writers all agree as to the fact of the migration of a colony of Lydians under the conduct of Tyrrhenus to the part of Italy afterwards called Etruria. This subject however, as well as the migrations of the Pelasgi, is involved in the greatest obscurity.

1208 From the Greek verb θύειν “to sacrifice,” he implies:—from their custom of frequently sacrificing, says Servius, on the Xth Book of the Æneid. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that they were from their frequent sacrifices called θυόσκοοι. These are probably fanciful derivations; but there is no doubt that the people of Etruria were for several centuries the instructors of the Romans in the arts of sacrifice, augury, and divination.

1209 The ruins of Luna, which was destroyed by the Normans in the middle ages, are still visible on the banks of the Magra. The modern name of the port is Golfo della Spezzia.

1210 The modern city of Lucca has its site and name.—Livy, B. xli. c. 13, informs us that this colony was founded in the year of the city 576, during the Consulship of Claudius Pulcher and Sempronius Gracchus.

1211 The modern city of Pisa. See Virgil, B. x. l. 179, as to the origin of this place.

1212 The modern Serchio.

1213 Now the Arno.

1214 The people of Pisa or Pisæ, a city of Elis in the Peloponnesus.

1215 Now Vadi, a small village on the sea-shore.

1216 Still called the Cecina. It entered the Tyrrhenian sea, near the port of Vada Volaterrana just mentioned.

1217 The present Piombino is supposed to have arisen from the ruins of this place.

1218 Now the Bruno.

1219 The modern Ombrone.

1220 Now known as Telamone Vecchio.

1221 There are ruins near lake Orbitello, which bear the name of Cosa; Ansedonia was said to have risen from its ruins, and in its turn fallen to decay.

1222 Two localities have been mentioned as the site of Graviscæ, at both of which there are ancient remains: one on the right bank of the Marta, about a mile from its mouth, and the other on the sea-coast at a spot called Santo Clementino or Le Saline, a mile south of the mouth of the Marta. Probably the latter are the remains of Graviscæ, although Dennis (Etruria, i. pp. 387-395) inclines to be in favour of the former.

1223 The modern Torre Chiaruccia, five miles south of Civita Vecchia.

1224 The modern Torre di Santa Severa.

1225 Now the Vaccina.

1226 The remains of this once powerful city are marked by the village of Cervetri or Old Cære. According to Strabo it received its name from the Greek word χαῖρε “hail!” with which the inhabitants saluted the Tyrrhenian or Lydian invaders. It was to this place that the Romans sent their most precious sacred relics when their city was taken by the Gauls. Its most interesting remains are the sepulchres, of which an account is given in Dennis’s Etruria.

1227 Its remains are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Palo.

1228 Its site is supposed to have been at the spot now called the Torre di Maccarese, midway between Palo and Porto, and at the mouth of the river Arone. Its situation was marshy and unhealthy.

1229 This exceeds the real distance, which is about 230 miles.

1230 The site of the Etruscan Falerii or Falisci is probably occupied by the present Civita Castellana; while that of the Roman city of the same name, at a distance of four miles, is marked by a single house and the ruins of a church, called Santa Maria di Falleri. The ancient city was captured by the Romans under Camillus.

1231 In his book of “Origines,” which is now lost.

1232 “The Grove of Feronia.” The town was so called from the grove of that Sabine goddess there situate. In the early times of Rome there was a great resort to this spot not only for religious purposes, but for those of trade as well. Its traces are still to be seen at the village of Saint Orestes, near the south-east extremity of the hill there, which is still called Felonica. This is in southern Etruria, but Ptolemy mentions another place of the same name in the north-west extremity of Etruria, between the Arnus and the Macra.

1233 The people of the spot now called Siena, in Tuscany.

1234 Now Sutri, on the river Pozollo.

1235 The people of Arretium, one of the most powerful cities of Etruria. The three tribes or peoples here mentioned probably did not occupy distinct towns, but constituted separate communities or municipal bodies, being distinct colonies or bodies of settlers. The Julienses were the colonists settled there by Augustus. The Fidentes had probably settled at an earlier period. The modern Arezzo has risen on the remains of the Roman city, while the remains of the Etruscan city are pointed out on an elevated spot called Poggio di San Cornellio, two or three miles south-east of Arezzo. Many valuable relics of antiquity have been discovered here. The family of Mæcenas sprang from this place.

1236 The people of Aquæ Tauri, a watering-place of Etruria, situate about three miles north of the present Civita Vecchia, and now called Bagni di Ferrata. The baths are described by Rutilius in his Itinerary, who calls them Tauri Thermæ (the Bull’s Baths), and ascribes their name to the fact of their having been accidentally discovered by a bull.

1237 The people of Blera, on the site of the modern village of Bieda, about twelve miles south of Viterbo. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been found here.—See Dennis’s Etruria, vol. i. pp. 260-272.

1238 The people of Cortona, a powerful city of Etruria, which is still known by the same name. It was probably in the number of the cities of Etruria that were ravaged by Sylla, and then recolonized by him. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been discovered there.

1239 The people of Capena, an ancient and important city of Etruria, which, after long opposing the inroads of the Romans, was reduced to submission shortly after the fall of Veii, B.C. 393. It existed and held municipal rank till the time of the Emperor Aurelian, after which all traces of its name or existence were lost, till 1750, when Galetti fixed its site with great accuracy at Civitucola or San Martino, about 24 miles from Rome. It was situate on the banks of a small river now called the Grammiccia, and in its territory was the celebrated ‘Lucus Feroniæ’ previously mentioned.

1240 The new and old colonists of the city of Clusium, who probably enjoyed distinct municipal rights. The modern Chiusi stands on its site.

1241 The modern Fiorenze or Florence occupies the site of their city.

1242 The village of Fiesole stands on its site. Extensive remains of the ancient city are still to be found.

1243 The site of Ferentinum is now uninhabited, but is still known by the name of Ferento. The rivers of the ancient city are very considerable; it was finally destroyed by the people of Viterbo in the 12th century.

1244 An ancient town of Etruria near Falisci. Cluver thinks that it was situate at Gallese, a village nine miles north of Civita Castellana; but Dennis considers its site to have been between Borghetto on the Tiber and Corchiano, where there are considerable remains of an Etruscan city. The spot is named San Silvestro, from a ruined church there.

1245 Or Horta; the spot now called Orte, where numerous Etruscan remains are found; it probably derived its name from the Etruscan goddess Horta. Hortanum, the name given to it by Pliny, is perhaps an adjective form of the name, “oppidum” being understood.

1246 Possibly the same as ‘Urbs Vetus,’ on the side of which the present Orvieto stands.

1247 Now Nepi, near the river Pozzolo.

1248 According to Hardouin the site of the Novem Pagi, or nine Boroughs, is occupied by the modern Il Mignone, near Civita Vecchia.

1249 Its site is generally supposed to have been at Oriuolo, about five miles north of Bracciano; but Dennis informs us that there are no ancient remains at that place. Being a præfecture it may have consisted of only a number of little villages, united in one jurisdiction.

1250 The modern Pistoia stands on its site.

1251 Now Perugia.

1252 Supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the site of the modern Sovretto.

1253 Probably situate in the modern duchy of Castro.

1254 The people of Tarquinii near Rome, the head of the Etruscan confederation. It was here that Demaratus the Corinthian, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled. It was deserted by its inhabitants in the eighth or ninth century, who founded the town of Corneto on a hill opposite to it. The ruins are known as Turchina, a corruption of the ancient name.

1255 The site of their town is probably marked by the modern Toscanella.

1256 The ruins of their town still retain somewhat of their ancient name in that of “Vetulia.”

1257 The people of the powerful city of Veii, subdued by Camillus. Its ruins have been discovered in the vicinity of the village of Isola Farnese.

1258 Their town stood on the site of the present Bisontia.

1259 The people of Volaterræ, the present Volterra, one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation. It was for a time the residence of the kings of Lombardy. The modern town covers only a small portion of the area of the ancient city, of which there are some interesting remains.

1260 The people of Volci or Vulci, of which the ruins bear the same name. Its sepulchres have produced vast treasures of ancient art.

1261 The people of Volsinii or Vulsinii, now called Bolsena. This was one of the most ancient and powerful of the twelve cities of the Etruscan confederation. On their subjugation by the Romans the Etruscan city was destroyed, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle on a less defensible site. The new city was the birth-place of Sejanus, the worthless favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely any remains.

1262 Called also Crustumeria, Crustumium, and Crustuminium. It was a city of Latium on the borders of the Sabine country, and was subdued by Romulus, though it afterwards appears as independent in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. The territory was noted for its fertility. The exact site of the city is unknown; a place called Marcigliana Vecchia, about nine miles from Rome, seems the most probable.

1263 The site of Caletra is quite unknown. It was situate at some point in the present valley of the Albegna.

1264 The First Region extended from the Tiber to the Gulf of Salernum, being bounded in the interior by the Apennines. It consisted of ancient Latium and Campania, comprising the modern Campagna di Roma, and the provinces of the kingdom of Naples.

1265 Livy, B. i. c. 3, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii. l. 389, inform us that the name of Albula was changed into Tiberis in consequence of king Tiberinus being accidentally drowned in it.

1266 Still known by that name. The Glanis is called la Chiana.

1267 According to D’Anville, now known as Citta di Castello.

1268 A municipal town of Umbria, situate near the confluence of the rivers Nar and Tiber, and on the Flaminian Way. There are the ruins of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and some temples, now the modern Otricoli.

1269 The territory of Umbria extended from the left bank of the Tiber, near its rise, to the Adriatic.

1270 The Sabines occupied the left bank of the Tiber from the Umbri to the Anio. The Crustumini and the Fidenates probably occupied the southern part of the district about the river Alba.

1271 The Nera and the Teverone. The exact situation of the district of Vaticanum has not been ascertained with exactness.

1272 As not so much causing mischief by its inundations, as giving warning thereby of the wrath of the gods and of impending dangers; which might be arrested by sacrifices and expiatory rites.—See Horace, Odes, B. i. 2. 29.

1273 The frontier of ancient Latium was at Circeii, but that of modern Latium extended to Sinuessa.

1274 A town of Latium, situate at the foot of the Mons Circeius, now Monte Circello. It was used as a place of retirement, and Tiberius and Domitian had villas there. The Triumvir Lepidus was banished thither by Octavius after his deposition. It was also famous for its oysters, which were of the finest quality. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill called Monte di Citadella, about two miles from the sea.

1275 Now the Garigliano, the same river which he previously calls the Glanis. It was the boundary between Latium and Campania.

1276 Founded by Ancus Martius, as we learn from Livy. It was abandoned under the Emperor Claudius, who built the Portus Romanus or Portus Augusti in its vicinity; and it only continued famous for its salt-works, which had been established there by Ancus Martius. Its ruins, still called Ostia, are nearly three miles from the coast, in consequence of the receding of the sea.

1277 Now San Lorenzo. It was between Ostia and Antium.

1278 By some, Æneas was supposed to have been worshiped by that name.

1279 Now the river Numico.

1280 The ruins of this once great city may still be seen near the present village of the same name. Its situation was peculiarly unhealthy. Another tradition, besides the one mentioned by Pliny, was, that it was founded by a son of Ulysses and Circe. It was twenty-four miles distant from Rome.

1281 A temple of Venus, of which the ruins are still to be seen.

1282 Its few ruins are still known as Anzio Rovinato. It was famous for its temple of Fortune, addressed by Horace, Odes, i. 35. Near the site is the modern village of Porto d’Anzo.

1283 This island was occupied by villas of the Roman nobility, and was the resort of Cicero, Augustus and Tiberius. There is still a fortified town called the Torre di Astura.

1284 The modern Ninfa.

1285 “The Roman Bulwarks.” They were thrown up to protect the frontier of the ancient kingdom of Rome from the inroads of the Volscians.

1286 To our previous note we may add that this spot was supposed to have been once inhabited by the enchantress Circe, the daughter of the Sun, and from her to have taken its name.

1287 This has been also translated “dedicated to Nicodorus, the Archon of Athens,” but nothing appears to be known of such a fact as the dedication to Nicodorus of any of his works.

1288 Now called the “Palude Pontine.” They are again mentioned in B. xxvi. c. 9.

1289 Now called Il Portatore.

1290 It was situate fifty-eight miles from Rome; the modern town of Terracina stands on its site. The remains of the ancient citadel are visible on the slope of Montecchio.

1291 The exact site of this place is unknown. Servius, in his Commentary on B. x. of the Æneid, l. 564, tells the same story of the serpents.

1292 This was near Amyclæ. A villa was situate there called “Speluncæ,” from the cavities in the rock, in one of which the Emperor Tiberius nearly lost his life by the falling in of the roof. The modern village of Sperlonga, eight miles west of Gaëta, marks its site.

1293 Now Lago di Fondi.

1294 Now Gaëta, said to have received its name from being the burial-place of Caieta, the nurse of Æneas. The shore was studded with numerous villas of the Roman nobility. It is now a city of great opulence; in its vicinity extensive ruins are to be seen.

1295 On the spot now called Mola di Gaëta. Many of the wealthy Romans, and among them Cicero, had villas here: and at this place he was put to death. It was destroyed by the Saracens in the year 856. The remains of antiquity to be seen on this spot are very extensive.

1296 Homer places these Cannibals on the coast of Sicily, but the Romans in general transplanted them to the vicinity of Circeii, and suppose Formiæ to have been built by Lamus, one of their kings. It is more probable however that it was founded by the Laconians, from whom it may have received its name of Hormiæ (from the Greek ὅρμος), as being a good roadstead for shipping.

1297 Its site is occupied by the present Trajetta. In its marshes, formed by the overflow of the Liris, Caius Marius was taken prisoner, concealed in the sedge.

1298 The town of Minturnæ stood on both banks of the river.

1299 Its ruins are probably those to be seen in the vicinity of Rocca di Mondragone. It was a place of considerable commercial importance. On its site Livy says there formerly stood the Greek city of Sinope.

1300 “Felix illa Campania.”

1301 Now Sezza.

1302 A marshy district of Latium, extending about eight miles along the coast from Terracina to Speluncæ, famous in the time of Horace for the first-rate qualities of its wines.

1303 A district famous for its wines, extending from the Massican Hills to the north bank of the Volturnus.

1304 According to Hardouin, the town of Calenum was on the site of the present Calvi near Capua.

1305 Now called Monte Marsico, and as famous for its wine (called Muscatella) as it was in the Roman times.

1306 Now Monte Barbaro. The wines of most of these places will be found fully described by Pliny in B. xiv.

1307 More fully mentioned, B. xviii. c. 29, where the ‘alicæ’ or fermenty made from the spelt grown here is again referred to.

1308 Of Baiæ, Puteoli, and Stabiæ, for instance.

1309 The modern Saove.

1310 Now called the Volturno, with a small place on its banks called Castel Volturno.

1311 The present village of Torre di Patria is supposed to occupy its site.

1312 Strabo describes Cumæ as a joint colony of the Chalcidians of Eubœa and the Cymæans of Æolis. Its sea-shore was covered with villas of the Roman aristocracy, and here Sylla spent the last years of his life. Its site is now utterly desolate and its existing remains inconsiderable.

1313 Now Capo or Punta di Miseno; a town built on a promontory of Campania, by Æneas, it was said, in honour of his trumpeter, Misenus, who was drowned there. It was made by Augustus the principal station of the Roman fleet. Here was the villa of Marius, which afterwards belonged to Lucullus and the Emperor Tiberius, who died here.

1314 Famous for its warm springs, and the luxurious resort of the Roman patricians. Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Cæsar had villas here. In later times it became the seat of every kind of pleasure and dissipation. It is now rendered unwholesome by the Malaria, and the modern Castello di Baja, with numerous ruins, alone marks its site.

1315 The modern village of Baolo stands near its site. It was here that Hortensius had his fish-ponds, mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 55. It rivalled its neighbour Baiæ in ministering to the luxury of the wealthy Romans, and was occupied by numerous villas so late as the reign of Theodosius.

1316 Probably the inner part of the Gulf of Cumæ or Puteoli, but separated from the remainder by an embankment eight stadia in length. It was famous for its oyster-beds. Behind it was the Lake Avernus, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and supposed by the Greeks to be the entrance to the Infernal Regions. Agrippa opened a communication with the Lucrine Lake to render Lake Avernus accessible to ships. The Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, and a mountain rose in its place. The Lake Avernus is still called the Lago di Averno.

1317 Or “the town Cimmerium.” Nothing is known of it.

1318 Now Pozzuolo. The Romans called it Puteoli, from the strong smell of its mineral springs. There are still many ruins of the ancient town, which was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila, and as many times rebuilt.

1319 Now called Salpatara. This was the name given to the volcanic plain extending from Cumæ to Capua, and supposed to have been once covered with fire; whence the name, from φλέγω, “to burn.”

1320 Now the Lago di Fusaro. It seems to have had its name from its vicinity to Avernus, the supposed entrance to the infernal regions. Its banks were, in the later times of the Roman republic, adorned with the villas of the wealthy.

1321 Neapolis, or the “New City,” was founded by the Chalcidians of Cumæ on the site of Parthenope, the supposed burial-place of the Siren of that name. It was so called as being only a ‘new quarter’ of the neighbouring city of Cumæ. The modern city of Naples stands nearly on its site.

1322 Said to have been founded by Hercules. It was on the occasion of its destruction by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79, that our author unfortunately met his death, a martyr to his thirst for knowledge. Its closer proximity to Vesuvius caused it to be buried under a more solid body of materials ejected from the mountain than was the case with Pompeii; which seems to have been suffocated with ashes, while Herculaneum was covered with volcanic tufa most probably hardened by the agency of water. A few scattered inhabitants are supposed to have afterwards settled upon the site where it was buried, which for many centuries was utterly forgotten, till brought to light in 1738. Part of the site over the buried town is occupied by the villages of Resina and Portici. The works of art found here far exceed in value and interest those discovered at Pompeii.

1323 This seems to have been a town of Oscan origin. The first traces of it were found in 1689, but excavations were not commenced till 1721. It perished in the same eruption of Vesuvius as Herculaneum.

1324 Now the Sarno. Its course was changed by the great eruption of Vesuvius previously mentioned.

1325 The modern Nocera stands on its site. Pompeii was used as its harbour.

1326 Now Sorrento.

1327 Now also called Capo della Minerva.

1328 It probably had its name from Campania, of which it was the capital, and which was so called from its extensive campi or plains. The site of this luxurious and magnificent city is now occupied by the village of Santa Maria di Capoua, the modern city of Capua being on the site of ancient Casilinum. Of ancient Capua there are but few remains. It was made a Roman colony by Julius Cæsar.

1329 Originally a city of the Volscians: Cicero had a villa there, and Juvenal and the emperor Pescennius Niger were natives of it. The present Aquino stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of it to be seen.

1330 Or Suessa Aurunca, to distinguish it from the Volscian city of Suessa Pometia. The poet Lucilius was a native of it. The modern Sessa stands in its vicinity.

1331 The modern Venafri stands near its site. It was famous for the excellence of its olives.

1332 On the banks of the Suris, and the most northerly town of the Volsci. The modern Sora is in its vicinity, and the remains of its walls are still to be seen.

1333 The modern Teano occupies its site. It was famous for the medicinal springs in its vicinity. There was another Teanum, in Apulia.

1334 The town on its site still preserves the name. Bells were made here, whence in the later writers they are called “Nolæ.” There is also an ecclesiastical tradition that church bells were first used by Saint Paulinus, bishop of this place, whence they were called ‘Campanæ.’ The emperor Augustus died here.

1335 The remains of the ancient town, of which the ruins are very extensive, are called Avella Vecchia. It was famous for its fruit, especially its filberts, to which it gives name in the French “Avelines.” It was first a Greek colony, and then a town of the Oscans.

1336 A city of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, and said to have been of Sicilian origin. The modern town of La Riccia occupies the site of its citadel. It was celebrated for the temple and grove of Diana, whose high priest was always a fugitive slave who had killed his predecessor, and was called “Rex nemorensis,” or “king of the grove.” See Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 59; Art of Love, B. i. l. 260; and Lucan, B. vi. l. 74.

1337 The ancient city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome. The Roman colony here was probably but small. The Roman patrician families, the Julii, Servilii, Tullii, and Quintii, are said to have migrated from Alba Longa, which, according to tradition, had given to Rome her first king.

1338 The people of Acerra, still called by the same name; it was plundered and burnt by Hannibal, B.C. 216, but was rebuilt by order of the Roman senate.

1339 The people of Allifæ, a former city of Samnium, on the borders of Campania. The modern city of Alife, a decayed place, stands on its site. There are considerable remains.

1340 The people of Atina, an ancient city of the Volscians. The modern city of Atina, noted for the bleakness of its situation, stands on its site. There are extensive ruins of the ancient city.

1341 The people of Aletrium or Alatrium, an ancient city of the Hernici. The modern Alatri stands on its site; there are but few ancient remains.

1342 The people of Anagnia in Latium, still called Anagni. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient place, which was of considerable importance.

1343 The people of Atella, an ancient city of Campania. Some remains of its ruins are to be seen two miles east of the town of Aversa, near the villages of San Arpino and San Elpidio.

1344 The people of Affilæ, an ancient Hernican town. It is still called Affile, and has many ancient remains.

1345 The people of Arpinum, once a famous city of the Volscians. The present Arpino occupies its site; there are few Roman remains, but its ancient walls, of Cyclopean construction, still exist. It was the birth-place of Marius and Cicero. The villa of the latter was on the banks of the adjoining river Fibrenus. It was, and is still, famous for its woollen manufactures.

1346 The people of Auximum, a city of Picenum. Its site is occupied by the modern Osimo; there are numerous remains of antiquity to be seen.

1347 Or perhaps “Abellini,” people of Abelliacum; which, if meant, ought not to be included in this division, being a city of the Hirpini. This city was finally destroyed in the wars of the Greeks and Lombards, and the modern Avellino rose on its site. There are considerable ruins in the vicinity. According to Hardouin, this place also claimed the honour of giving name to filberts, which grew abundantly in its vicinity. If such is the case, it seems probable that both it and Abella took their names from that fruit as called by the early inhabitants. See Note 1335 p. 198.

1348 An ancient city of Latium. Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the Via Appia. See a curious story connected with it in Ovid’s Fasti, B. iii. l. 667 et seq.

1349 There were two cities of this name on the confines of Samnium and Campania, one in the valley of the Volturnum, the modern Caiazzo, the other in Campania, between Capua and Beneventum, whose ruins are probably those to be seen at Le Galazzi, between Caserta and Maddaloni.

1350 Once a considerable city of Latium. The modern city of San Germano has risen on its ruins, while the name of Monte Casino has been retained by the monastery founded near it by St. Bernard A.D. 529.

1351 The present Calvi probably occupies its site.

1352 It is not named in history. Its site was probably between Palestrina and Il Piglio.

1353 The people of Cereatæ, a town of Latium. It is supposed that the ancient monastery of Casamari occupied its site.

1354 The people of Cora, an ancient city of Latium. The present Cori stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of the ancient walls and other buildings.

1355 The people of Castrimœnium, a colony of Sylla. It has been suggested that these were the same people whom Pliny speaks of at a subsequent place in this chapter as the Munienses, an extinct people of Latium. If so, the name was perhaps changed on the establishment here by Sylla of his colony. It probably stood near the modern city of Marino.

1356 The people of Cingulum, a city of Picenum, the site of which is occupied by the modern Cingoli.

1357 It is conjectured that Fabia was on the same site as the present village of Rocca di Papa.

1358 The inhabitants of Forum Popilii in Campania; its site is unknown.

1359 The people of Frusino, originally a Volscian city. The modern Frosinone occupies its site.

1360 The people of Ferentinum, a city of the Hernici: the present city of Ferentino stands on its site. The ruins are very extensive.

1361 Probably the people of Fregellæ, an ancient city of the Volscians. Its site is now unknown, but it was probably on the banks of the Liris, opposite to the modern Ceprano.

1362 The people of Fabrateria or Frabateria, a Volscian city. A Roman colony was placed there B.C. 124, by C. Gracchus, and probably the old inhabitants for that reason styled themselves “Veteres.” The ruins at San Giovanni in Cerico, about three miles from Falvaterra, are supposed to be those of this place, or at least of the new town or colony. In such case Falvaterra may occupy the site of the original city.

1363 The people of Ficulnea or Ficulia, a city of ancient Latium, on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed to have decayed soon after the reign of M. Aurelius. Its site was probably on the modern domain of Cesarini, though some separate the ancient Latin city from the Roman town, and fix the locality of the former on the hill called Monte Gentile, or that of the Torre Lupara.

1364 These are omitted in most editions, but if a correct reading, the word must signify the “people of Fregellæ,” and the Freginates must be the people of Fregenæ in Etruria; although they do not appear properly to belong to this locality.

1365 “The Market of Appius.” It was distant forty-three miles from Rome, and we learn from Horace, that it was the usual resting-place for travellers at the end of one day’s journey from Rome. It is also mentioned in the account of the journey of St. Paul (Acts xxviii. 15) as one of the usual resting-places on the Appian way. There are now no inhabitants on the spot, but considerable ruins still exist, as well as the forty-third milestone, which is still to be seen.

1366 Probably the inhabitants of Ferentium or Ferentinum, now Ferento, five miles from Viterbo, a city of Etruria, of which very considerable remains exist.

1367 The people of Gabii, formerly one of the most famous cities of Latium. On its site the ruins of a mediæval fortress now stand, known as Castiglione. Some remains of the walls still exist.

1368 The people of Interamna Lirinas, a Roman colony on the banks of the Liris; and as there were several cities of the same name, it was generally distinguished by the epithet “Lirinas.” Pliny no doubt calls it “Succasina,” from its vicinity to Casinum. Its site, though uninhabited, is still called Terame, and there are numerous remains of antiquity.

1369 Probably the people of Lavinium were thus called from their supposed Trojan descent. The town was said to have been founded by Æneas in honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. In the times of the Antonines it was united with Laurentum; their ruins are to be seen at Casale di Copocotta.

1370 The people of Norba, a town of Latium. It is now called Norma, and there are still some remains of the ancient walls.

1371 Nomentum, now called La Mentana, was a Latin town, fourteen miles from Rome.

1372 The people of Præneste, one of the most ancient towns of Latium. It was originally a Pelasgic city, but claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. During summer it was much frequented by the Romans for its delightful coolness. The remains of its ancient walls are still to be seen at Palestrina.

1373 The people of Privernum, now Piperno, an ancient city of Latium.

1374 The people of Setia, now Sesse or Sezza, an ancient town of Latium, to the east of the Pomptine marshes. It was famous for its wine.

1375 The people of Signia, now Segni, a town of Latium founded by Tarquinius Priscus. There are still some remains of its walls.

1376 The people of Suessula, now Castel di Sessola.

1377 The people of Telesia, a town of Samnium seven leagues from Capua, now called Telese.

1378 Trebula was distinguished probably by this surname from a town of that name in Samnium. There seem to have been two places of the name in the Sabine territory, but it is not known which is here meant. The ruins of one of them are supposed to be those not far from Maddaloni.

1379 The people of Treba, now Trevi, a town of Latium.

1380 The people of Tusculum, an ancient town of Latium, the ruins of which are to be seen on a hill about two miles distant from the modern Frascati. Cicero’s favourite residence was his Tusculan villa, and Cato the censor was a native of this place.

1381 The people of Verulæ, a town of the Hernici, in Latium, now Veroli.

1382 The people of Velitræ, an ancient town of the Volsci, now Velletri. It was the birth-place of the emperor Augustus.

1383 The people of Ulubræ, a small town of Latium, near the Pomptine Marshes; its site is unknown.

1384 The people of Urbinum; there were two places of that name in Umbria, now called Urbeno and Urbania.

1385 The name probably by which the city was called in the mystical language of the priesthood. It has been said that this mysterious name of Rome was Valentia; if so, it appears to be only a translation of her name Græcized—Ῥώμη, “strength.” This subject will be found again mentioned in B. xxviii. c. 4.

1386 Solinus says that he was put to death as a punishment for his rashness. M. Sichel has suggested that this mysterious name was no other than Angerona.

1387 It is not known whether this mystical divinity was the goddess of anguish and fear, or of silence, or whether she was the guardian deity of Rome. Julius Modestus says that she relieved men and cattle when visited by the disease called “angina,” or “quinsy,” whence her name.

1388 The Carmental, the Roman, and the Pandanian or Saturnian gates, according to Varro.

1389 Titus was saluted Imperator after the siege of Jerusalem, and was associated with his father Vespasian in the government. They also acted together as Censors.

1390 The Lares Compitales presided over the divisions of the city, which were marked by the compita or points where two or more streets crossed each other, and where ‘ædiculæ’ or small chapels were erected in their honour. Statues of these little divinities were erected at the corner of every street. It was probably this custom which first suggested the idea of setting up images of the Virgin and Saints at the corners of the streets, which are still to be seen in many Roman Catholic countries at the present day.

1391 This was a gilded column erected by Augustus in the Forum, and called “milliarium aureum;” on it were inscribed the distances of the principal points to which the “viæ” or high-roads conducted.

1392 Supposing the circuit of the city to have been as he says, 13^2⁄5 miles, he must either make a great miscalculation here, or the text must be very corrupt. The average diameter of the city would be in such case about 4^1⁄2 miles, the average length of each radius drawn from the mile-column 2^1⁄4 miles, and the total amount 83^1⁄4 miles, whereas he makes it but 20^3⁄4 miles, or little better than an average of half-a-mile for each radius. We may also remark that the camp of the Prætorian cohorts here mentioned was established by the emperor Tiberius, by the advice of Sejanus. Ajasson’s translation makes the measurement to be made to twelve gates only, but the text as it stands will not admit of such a construction.

1393 The Aventine, Cælian, and Quirinal hills.

1394 Such as Ocriculum, Tibur, Aricia, &c.

1395 Near Antium. Casale di Conca stands on its site.

1396 Suæssa Pometia. It was destroyed by the consul Servilius, and its site was said, with that of twenty-two other towns, to have been covered by the Pomptine Marsh, to which it gave its name.

1397 A town of Latium destroyed by Ancus Martius.

1398 An ancient city of Latium, conquered by Romulus; on which occasion he slew its king Acron and gained the spolia opima. Nibby suggests that it stood on the Magugliano, two miles south-east of Monte Gentile. Holstein says that it stood where the present Sant’ Angelo or Monticelli stands.

1399 Also destroyed by Ancus Martius. A farm called Dragonello, eleven miles from Rome, is supposed to have stood upon its site. Tellene was also destroyed by the same king. Tifata was a town of Campania.

1400 A city of Latium, which was conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that its ruins are visible about a mile to the north of Monte Sant’ Angelo.

1401 A Sabine town, the people of which were incorporated by Tarquinius Priscus with the Roman citizens. It is supposed to have stood on the present Monte Sant’ Angelo.

1402 An ancient city of Latium, subdued by Tarquinius Priscus, on which occasion Ocrisia, the mother of Servius Tullius, fell into the hands of the Romans as a captive. It was probably situate on one of the isolated hills that rise from the plain of the Campagna.

1403 Both Virgil and Ovid allude to this tradition.

1404 Said to have been so called from being “opposite” to the ancient city of Saturnia. The Janiculus or Janiculum was a fortress on the opposite bank of the Tiber, and a suburb of Rome, connected with it by the Sublician bridge.

1405 A very ancient city situate three miles from Rome, and said to have been so called from its position on the Tiber, ante amnem. In the time of Strabo it had become a mere village. It stood at the confluence of the Anio and the Tiber.

1406 An ancient city of Latium reduced by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that the town of Palombara, near the foot of Monte Gennaro, stands on its site.

1407 An ancient city of Latium. It probably gradually fell into decay. Lucius Tarquinius, the husband of Lucretia, is represented as dwelling here during the siege of Ardea. Its site is thought by some to have been at Castellaccio or Castel dell’ Osa, and by others at Lunghezza, which is perhaps the most probable conjecture.

1408 An ancient city of the Sabines. Its ruins are visible at San Vittorino, a village near Aquila.

1409 An ancient town of the Volsci, five leagues from Velletri. Sermonata now stands on its site. It must not be confounded with the town of the Peligni, the birth-place of Ovid.

1410 “Populi Albenses.” It does not appear to be exactly known what is the force of this expression, but he probably means either colonies from Alba, or else nations who joined in the confederacy of which Alba was the principal. Niebuhr looks upon them as mere demi or boroughs of the territory of Alba.

1411 “Accipere carnem.” Literally, “to take the flesh.” It appears that certain nations, of which Alba was the chief, were in early times accustomed to meet on the Alban Mount for the purposes of sacrifice. The subject is full of obscurity, but it has been suggested that this minor confederacy co-existed with a larger one including all the Latin cities, and there can be little doubt that the common sacrifice was typical of a bond of union among the states that partook therein. It does not necessarily appear from the context that more than the thirty-one states after mentioned took part therein, though the text may be so construed as to imply that the Latin nations previously mentioned also shared in the sacrifice; if so, it would seem to imply that Alba was the chief city of the whole Latin confederacy. See this subject ably discussed in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography, under the article Latini.

1412 The people of Æsulæ. Of this Latin city nothing is known. The territory is mentioned by Horace, and Gell places its site on the Monte Affiliano.

1413 The people of Bubentum. Nothing is known of this Latin city or of the preceding ones.

1414 Bola was an ancient city of Latium, taken successively by Coriolanus and M. Postumius. Its site is supposed to have been five miles from the modern Palestrina, at the modern village of Lugnano.

1415 The people of Corioli. It was probably a Latian town, but fell into the possession of the Volsci, from whom it was taken by Cn. Marcius, who thence obtained the name of “Coriolanus.” Monte Giove, nineteen miles from Rome, has been suggested as its site.

1416 Pliny is supposed to be in error in representing Fidenæ, the early antagonist of Rome, as being extinct in his time, and he will be found in the sequel reckoning it in the Fourth Region. This ancient Latian town never lost its municipal rank, though it had no doubt in his time become a mere country town. The present Castel Giubilco is supposed to be situate on its site.

1417 The people of Horta, a town of Etruria, now Horte. Many Etruscan remains have been discovered there.

1418 The people of Longula, a Volscian town. Buon Riposo now occupies its site.

1419 The people of Pedum; nothing is known of it. The rest of these nations are either almost or entirely unknown.

1420 This was an ancient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. After its overthrow, as mentioned by Pliny, it was in some measure rebuilt, possibly after this passage was penned. It was finally destroyed by the great eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79, and it was here that our author breathed his last.

1421 A town three miles west of Capua. It was of much importance as a military position, and played a considerable part in the second Punic war. The period of its final destruction is unknown; but modern Capua is built on its site.

1422 This city took the lead in the war of the Latin cities against Tarquinius Priscus. Gell and Nibby think that it was situate about eleven miles from Rome, a mile to the south of the Appian way, where there are some remains that indicate the site of an ancient city, near the stream called the Fosso delle Fratocche. Livy tells us that with the spoils thence derived, Tarquinius celebrated the Ludi Magni for the first time.

1423 Opposite Capreæ, and situate on the Promontory of Minerva. Sorrento now stands on its site.

1424 The modern Silaro; it was the boundary between Lucania and Campania, and rises in the Apennines.

1425 A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Gulf of Pæstum. In consequence of the aid which they gave to Hannibal, the inhabitants were forced to abandon their town and live in the adjoining villages. The name of Picentini was given, as here stated, to the inhabitants of all the territory between the Promontory of Minerva and the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted thither after the conquest of Picenum, B.C. 268. The modern Vicenza stands on its site.

1426 The Argonaut. Probably this was only a vague tradition.

1427 By using the genitive ‘Salerni,’ he would seem to imply that the Roman colony of Salernum then gave name to the district of which Picentia was the chief town. Ajasson however has translated it merely “Salernum and Picentia.” ‘Intus’ can hardly mean “inland,” as Picentia was near the coast, and so was Salernum.

1428 This was an ancient town of Campania, at the innermost corner of the Gulf of Pæstum, situate near the coast, on a height at the foot of which lay its harbour. It attained great prosperity, as Salerno, in the middle ages, and was noted for its School of Health established there; which issued periodically rules for the preservation of health in Latin Leonine verse.

1429 “Græciæ maxime populi.” This may also be rendered “a people who mostly emigrated from Greece,” in reference to the Siculi or Sicilians, but the other is probably the correct translation.

1430 A town of Lucania, colonized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. In the time of Augustus it seems to have been principally famous for the exquisite beauty of its roses. Its ruins are extremely magnificent.

1431 Now the Golfo di Salerno.

1432 A Greek town founded by the Phocæans. It was the birth-place of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of philosophy known as the Eleatic. Castell’ a Mare della Brucca stands on its site.

1433 Now Capo di Palinuro; said to have received its name from Palinurus, the pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea there and was murdered by the natives. See Virgil, Æneid, B. vi. l. 381 et seq.

1434 Now the Golfo di Policastro.

1435 This tower or column was erected in the vicinity of Rhegium on the Straits of Sicily. It was 100 stadia, or about eight miles, from the town, and at it passengers usually embarked for Sicily. The spot is now called Torre di Carallo.

1436 Now the Faraone.

1437 A Greek colony. The present Policastro occupies very nearly its site. It seems to have received its name from the cultivation of box trees in its vicinity.

1438 Or more properly Laos, originally a Greek colony. In the vicinity is the modern town of Laino, and the river is called the Lao.

1439 Ptolemy mentions it as an inland town, and Livy speaks of it as a Lucanian city. It probably stood near the modern Maratea, twelve miles south-east of Policastro.

1440 The modern Bato.

1441 The bay of Bivona, formerly Vibo, the Italian name for the Greek city of Hippo or Hippona. On its site stands the modern Bivona.

1442 “Locus Clampetiæ.” Clampetia or Lampetia stood in the vicinity of the modern Amantia. From other authors we find that it was still existing at this time. If such is the fact, the meaning will be “the place where the former municipal town of Clampetia stood,” it being supposed to have lost in its latter years its municipal privileges.

1443 One of the ancient Ausonian towns, and afterwards colonized by the Ætolians. Like its namesake in Cyprus it was famous for its copper. Its site is now occupied by Torre di Lupi.

1444 A Greek city, almost totally destroyed by Hannibal; Santa Eufemia occupies its site.

1445 One of the cities of the Bruttii; now Cosenza.

1446 The part which now constitutes the Farther Calabria.

1447 Supposed to be the same as the Arconte, which falls into the Crathis near Consentia. Nothing is known of the town here alluded to, but it must not be confounded with Acherontia, the modern Acerenza, in Apulia, which was a different place.

1448 Supposed to have been the same as the modern port of Tropea.

1449 The modern Marro.

1450 Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near Palmi.

1451 Probably the modern Melia stands on its site.

1452 A town on the promontory of the same name, now called Scilla or Sciglio, where the monster Scylla was fabled to have dwelt.

1453 Homer says (Odyssey, xii. 124), that it had its name from the nymph Cratæis, the mother of Scylla. It is probably the small stream now called Fiume di Solano or dei Pesci.

1454 The modern Capo di Cavallo, according to the older commentators; but more recent geographers think that the Punta del Pezzo was the point so called.

1455 Now called Capo di Faro, from the lighthouse there erected.

1456 Originally a Greek colony; a Roman colony was settled there by Augustus. The modern city of Reggio occupies its site.

1457 it extended south of Consentia to the Sicilian Straits, a distance of 700 stadia. It produced the pitch for which Bruttium was so celebrated. Its site still has the name of Sila.

1458 Or White Rock, now Capo dell’ Armi. It forms the extremity of the Apennine Chain.

1459 The site of the city of Locri is supposed to have been that of the present Motta di Burzano.

1460 He says that they were called Epizephyrii, from the promontory of Zephyrium, now the Capo di Burzano; but according to others, they had this name only because their colony lay to the west of their native Greece. Strabo says that it was founded by the Locri Ozolæ, and not the Opuntii, as most authors have stated.

1461 This expression is explained by a reference to the end of the First Chapter of the present Book.

1462 Called by some the Canal de Baleares.

1463 Or Southern Sea.

1464 The modern Iviza and Formentera.

1465 The Greek for which is πίτυς.

1466 Less than two leagues in width.

1467 The real distance is 34 miles from the northern point of Iviza, called Punta de Serra, to the southern point of Formentera, namely—across Iviza 22 miles, across the sea 5, and across Formentera 7.

1468 Now Denia.

1469 This is not correct: the distance is but 45 miles.

1470 This is incorrect: taken at the very greatest, the distance is only 522 stadia, eight to the mile.

1471 The Xucar in Spain.

1472 We more generally find it stated that the isle of Formentera, one of the Pityussæ, was called Colubraria. He probably refers to the islands of the group about twenty leagues from the coast of Spain, now known by the name of Columbrete; but they are not near the Xucar, from which, as well as from the Pityussæ, they are distant about seventy miles. The latter islands are now generally considered as part of the group of the Baleares.

1473 Now Majorca and Minorca, with the ancient Pityussæ.

1474 They served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians and afterwards under the Romans. The ancient writers generally derive the name of the people from their skill as archers—βαλεαρεῖς, from βάλλω, “to throw”; but Strabo assigns to the name a Phœnician origin, as being equivalent to the Greek γυμνῆται, “light-armed soldiers.” It is probably from their light equipment that the Greeks gave to the islands the name of Γυμνησίαι. Livy says that they used to go naked during the summer.

1475 Seventy miles is the real length of Majorca, and the circumference is barely 250 miles.

1476 Still called Palma. This and Pollentia were Roman colonies settled by Metellus.

1477 Now Pollenza.

1478 Now Sineu on the Borga.

1479 The circumference is about 110 miles, the length 32.

1480 Now Ciudadela.

1481 Now Port Mahon. The site of Sanisera, which was probably more inland, is unknown.

1482 Now Cabrera. The distance is not twelve, but nine miles.

1483 Now called the Malgrates.

1484 Now Dragonera.

1485 Now El Torre.

1486 As already mentioned he seems to confound Formentera, which was called Ophiusa, with the present group of Columbrete, which islands were probably called Colubraria.

1487 The former editions mostly omit “nec”; and so make it that Ebusus does produce the rabbits. Certainly, it does seem more likely that he would mention that fact than the absence of it, which even to Pliny could not appear very remarkable.

1488 D’Anville thinks that this is Metapina, but D’Astruc thinks that the flat islands, called Les Tignes, are meant.

1489 Now called Brescon, near Agde, according to D’Anville.

1490 Who were of Greek origin, and so called them, because they stood in a row, στοῖχος.

1491 Now called Porqueroles. Prote signifies the first, Mese the middle one, and Hypæa the one below the others.

1492 Now Port Croz. D’Anville considers that Pliny is mistaken in identifying this island with Pomponiana or Pompeiana, which he considers to be the same with the peninsula now called Calle de Giens, which lies opposite to Porqueroles.

1493 Now called the Ile du Levant or du Titan. The group is called the Islands of Hières or Calypso.

1494 These are probably the little islands now known as Ratoneau, Pomègue, and If. It has however been suggested that these names belong to the islands of Hières already mentioned in the text, and that Sturium is the present Porquerolles, Phœnice Port-Croz, and Phila, Levant or Titan.

1495 Now Antibes, or Antiboul in the Provençal idiom.

1496 Now Saint Honorat de Lérins. The island of Lero is the present Sainte Marguerite de Lérins, and is nearer to Antibes than Lerina. The Lerinian monastery was much resorted to in the early ages of Christianity.

1497 In ancient Etruria, now Torre di Vada. The distance is, in reality, about ninety miles.

1498 Mariana was situate in the northern part of the island, and the ruins of Aleria are still to be seen on the banks of the river Tavignano, near the coast.

1499 Probably near the present Monte Cristo.

1500 He probably means the group of islands called Formicole, which are situate only thirty-three miles from Corsica, and not near sixty.

1501 Now La Gorgona.

1502 Both of these names meaning “Goat island.” It is now called Capraia.

1503 The modern Giglio.

1504 Now Gianuto, opposite Monte Argentaro on the main-land.

1505 These are probably the small islands now called Formiete or Formicole di Grossetto, Troja, Palmajola, and Cervoli.

1506 The modern Elba.

1507 Now Pianosa.

1508 Astura still retains its ancient name, Palmaria is the present Palmarola, Sinonia is now Senone, and Pontiæ is the modern Isola di Ponza.

1509 Now Ventotiene.

1510 Deriving its name from the Greek word προχυτὸς, meaning “poured forth.”

1511 The present island of Ischia, off the coasts of Campania. The name of Pithecusæ appears to have been given by the Greeks to the two islands of Ænaria and Prochyta collectively.

1512 Ovid, like many other writers, mentions Inarime as though a different island from Pithecusæ. See Met. B. xiv. l. 89. As is here mentioned by Pliny, many persons derived the name “Pithecusæ” from πίθηκος “an ape,” and, according to Strabo, “Aremus” was the Etrurian name for an ape. Ovid, in the Metamorphoses, loc. cit., confirms this tradition by relating the change of the natives into apes. The solution of its name given by Pliny appears however extremely probable, that it gained its name from its manufacture of πιθηκὰ, or earthen vessels. Virgil is supposed to have coined the name of “Inarime.”

1513 Now Posilippo. It is said to have derived its name from the Greek παυσίλυπον, as tending to drive away care by the beauty of its situation. Virgil was buried in its vicinity.

1514 The modern Castel del’ Ovo.

1515 Now Capri. Here Tiberius established his den of lustfulness and iniquity. He erected twelve villas in the island, the remains of several of which are still to be seen.

1516 The distance between is hardly five miles.

1517 These rocks appear at the present day to be nameless. The old name seems to mean, the “Rabbit Warrens.”

1518 Phintonis, according to Hardouin, is the modern Isola di Figo, according to Mannert, Caprera. Cluver makes Fossæ to be the present Isola Rossa, while Mannert considers it to be the same with Santa Maddalena.

1519 Ταφρὸς being the Greek for the Latin word “fossa,” the ordinary meaning of which is an “excavation.”

1520 Probably the Cape of Carbonara, from which however Africa is distant only 121 miles, and the gulf of Gades or Cadiz 980.

1521 Now Capo Falcone.

1522 Now Asinara or Zavara, and Isola Piana.

1523 Now called Santo Antiocho, off La Punta dell’ Ulga.

1524 According to Cluver, the modern Coltelalzo.

1525 The “Baths of Juno.” The identity of these islands does not appear to have been ascertained.

1526 Said by Pausanias to have been descended from persons who escaped on the fall of Troy under the command of Iolaüs.

1527 Of the town of Sulcis. Its ruins are probably those seen at the village of Sulci, near the port Palma di Solo.

1528 Their town was probably on the site of the present Iglesias.

1529 Their town was probably either the present Napoli or Acqua di Corsari.

1530 Their town is probably indicated by the ruins on the river Gavino.

1531 Their town was Caralis, the present Cagliari.

1532 Their town was probably Nora, the present Torre Forcadizo.

1533 “At Libyso’s Tower.”

1534 From the Greek ἴχνος, “a footstep.”

1535 Now La Licosa, a small rocky island.

1536 Now Torricella, Praca, and Brace, with other rocks.

1537 Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, says 550.

1538 Meaning that it comes from the Greek verb ῥηγνύμι, “to break.” This is probably only a fanciful origin of the name.

1539 The present Garofalo. At the present day small boats approach it without danger.

1540 In Chap. x. Pelorus is the modern Capo di Faro.

1541 Now Capo di Passaro.

1542 The present Capo di Boco Marsala.

1543 Now Cape Bon. The real distance is but seventy-eight miles.

1544 The following are more probably the correct distances: 150, 210, and 230 miles.

1545 Now Messina.

1546 The modern Capo di Santo Alessio.

1547 Now called Taormini; the remains of the ancient town are very considerable.

1548 Probably the present Alcantara.

1549 The present Madonia and Monte di Mele.

1550 Now called I Fariglioni.

1551 In modern times called “Lognina Statione,” according to Hardouin.

1552 The modern city of Catania stands on its site.

1553 The Fiume di Santo Leonardo, according to Hardouin, but Mannert says the river Lentini. Ansart suggests the Guarna Lunga.

1554 Now Lentini. The ruins of Megaris are still to be seen, according to Mannert.

1555 Now the Porcaro.

1556 The modern city of Siracosa.

1557 See B. xxxi. c. 30, for particulars of this fountain.

1558 According to Mirabella, these springs are in modern times called Fonte di Canali, Cefalino, Fontana della Maddalena, Fonte Ciane, and Lampismotta.

1559 The modern Fonte Bianche. The Elorus, according to Hardouin, is the modern Acellaro, according to Mannert, the Abisso.

1560 The southern side.

1561 Now the Maulo, or Fiume di Ragusa.

1562 Still called Camarina. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient city now remain.

1563 According to Hardouin the Fiume Salso; but according to D’Anville and Mannert, the Fiume Ghiozzo.

1564 Now Girgenti. Gigantic remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

1565 See note 1572 in this page.

1566 The Achates is the modern Belice, the Mazara retains its name, and the Hypsa is now the Marsala.

1567 So called by the Greeks from its abundant growth of parsley, called by them σέλινον. Its remains are still to be seen at the spot called Selenti.

1568 Now Trapani. Some vestiges of its ancient mole are to be seen.

1569 The present Monte San Juliano.

1570 The great city of Palermo stands on its site. It was founded by the Phœnicians.

1571 The modern Solunto.

1572 Himera was destroyed by the Carthaginians, B.C. 408, upon which its inhabitants founded Thermæ, so called from its hot springs. This was probably the colony of Thermæ mentioned above by Pliny, though wrongly placed by him on the southern coast between Selinus and Agrigentum. The modern town of Termini stands on the site of Thermæ; remains of its baths and aqueduct are still to be seen. Himera stood on a river of the same name, most probably the present Fiume Grande, and Fazello is of opinion that the town was situate on the site now occupied by the Torre di Bonfornello. Himera was the birth-place of the poet Stesichorus.

1573 Or Cæphalœdium. Some remains of it are to be seen at the spot called Cefalu.

1574 Probably on the site now occupied by the town of San Marco. Fazello and Cluver however place Aluntium near San Filadelfo, where some ruins were formerly visible, and regard San Marco as the site of Agathyrna or Agathyrnum.

1575 Probably situate near the church of Santa Maria at Tindari, now the Capo di Mongioio.

1576 Now called Melazzo.

1577 Their city was Centuripa, on a hill S.W. of Ætna. The modern Centorbi occupies its site, and some of its ruins may still be seen.

1578 Netum probably stood on the spot now known as Noto Anticho.

1579 The ruins of Segesta are supposed to be those near the river San Bartolomeo, twelve miles south of Alcamo.

1580 Asaro occupies its site.

1581 A people dwelling at the foot of Mount Ætna, according to D’Anville, at a place now called Nicolosi.

1582 The people of Agyrium; the site of which is now called San Filippo d’Argiro. Diodorus Siculus was a native of this place.

1583 Acræ occupied a bleak hill in the vicinity of the modern Pallazolo, where its ruins are still to be seen.

1584 Their town was Bidis near Syracuse. The modern Bibino or San Giovanni di Bidini is supposed to stand on its site.

1585 The people of Cetaria, between Panormus and Drepanum. Its site is unknown.

1586 The people of Cacyrum, supposed to have stood on the site of the modern Cassaro. The Drepanitani were so called from living on the promontory of Drepanum.

1587 The ruins near La Cittadella are probably those of Ergetium.

1588 The people of Echetla. According to Faziello and Cluver its ruins were those to be seen at the place called Occhiala or Occhula, two miles from the town of Gran Michele.

1589 The inhabitants of the city of Eryx, on the mountain of that name, now San Giuliano. The ancient city stood probably half-way down the mountain.

1590 The town of Entella survived till the thirteenth century, when it was destroyed by the Emperor Frederic II. The ruins were formerly to be seen near Poggio la Reale.

1591 Perhaps the people of Enna, once a famous city. According to the story as related by Ovid and Claudian, it was from this spot that Proserpine was carried off by Pluto. It stood on the same site as the town of Castro Giovanni. This note may however be more applicable to the Hennenses, mentioned below.

1592 The ruins of Enguinum are probably those in the vicinity of the modern town of Gangi.

1593 The people of Gela, one of the most important cities of Sicily. Its site was probably the modern Terranova, near the river Fiume di Terranova.

1594 The people probably of Galata or Galaria; on the site of which the modern village of Galata is supposed to stand.

1595 The people probably of Halesa; its ruins are supposed to be those near the village of Tysa, near the river Pettineo.

1596 The people of Hybla. There were three cities of this name in Sicily, the Greater, the Less, and Hybla Megara. The name was probably derived from the local divinity mentioned by Pausanias as being so called.

1597 The people of Herbita; the site of which was probably at Nicosia, or else at Sperlinga, two miles south of it.

1598 There were two places in Sicily known as Herbessus or Erbessus—one near Agrigentum, the other about sixteen miles from Syracuse, on the site, it is supposed, of the present Pantalica.

1599 The people of Halicyæ, in the west of Sicily. The modern town of Salemi is supposed to occupy its site.

1600 The people of Adranum or Hadranum, a town famous for its temple of the Sicilian deity Adranus. Its site is occupied by the modern town of Aderno. The ruins are very considerable.

1601 The people of Ietæ; the site of which town is said by Fazello to be the modern Iato. The sites of the places previously mentioned cannot be identified.

1602 The site of their town is situate at the modern Mistretta, where some ruins are still to be seen.

1603 The site of their town was probably the present village of Mandri Bianchi on the river Dittaino.

1604 Probably the people of Motuca, mentioned by Ptolemy, now Modica.

1605 Their town probably stood on the site of the present Mineo.

1606 It has been suggested that these are the same as the people of Tauromenium, said to have been a Naxian colony.

1607 They are supposed to have dwelt on the site of the present Noara.

1608 The ruins of the town of Petra are supposed to have been those to be seen near Castro Novo, according to Mannert.

1609 Fazello is of opinion that the present Colisano occupies the site of the ancient Paropus.

1610 The city of Phthinthias was peopled by the inhabitants of Gela, by command of Phthinthias the despot of Agrigentum. Its ruins are probably those seen in the vicinity of the modern Alicata.

1611 The people of Selinus previously mentioned in p. 218.

1612 Randazzo, at the foot of Ætna, is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Tissa.

1613 The people of Triocala, now Troccoli, near Calata Bellota.

1614 Zancle was the ancient Greek name of Messina, which was so called from its similarity in shape to a sickle. The Messenian colony of the Zanclæi probably dwelt in its vicinity.

1615 Gaulos is the present Gozo, and Melita the important island of Malta. The distance here mentioned is in reality only sixty-one miles from Camerina.

1616 Now Pantellaria.

1617 The modern island of Maretimo.

1618 Probably the present island of Limosa.

1619 Galata still has the name of Calata, Lopadusa is the present Lampedosa, and Æthusa, according to Mannert, is called Favignana.

1620 Now Levanzo.

1621 According to Mannert, this is the island Alicur, to the west of the Æolian or Liparian islands. Ustica still retains its ancient name.

1622 The least distance between these localities is forty-five miles.

1623 There are now eleven, some of which are supposed to have risen from the sea since the time of Pliny.

1624 From Vulcan the god of fire, the Greek Hephæstus.

1625 Now called the Great Lipara.

1626 According to Solinus, c. vi., Æolus succeeded him. Its name Melogonis was by some ascribed to its great produce of honey.

1627 The shortest distance between these localities is forty-six miles.

1628 Now called Volcano.

1629 Now Strongoli and Stromboli. It is the only one of these mountains that is continually burning. Notwithstanding the dangers of their locality, this island is inhabited by about fifty families.

1630 Strabo makes the same mistake; the distance is twenty miles.

1631 According to Hardouin and D’Anville this is the modern Saline, but Mannert says Panaria. The geographers differ in assigning their ancient names to the other three, except that Euonymos, from its name, the “left-hand” island, is clearly the modern Lisca Bianca.

1632 These are the Gulf of Locri, the Gulf of Scyllacium, and the Gulf of Tarentum.

1633 Now called the Sagriano, though some make it to be the modern Alaro. The site of the town of Caulon does not appear to be known: it is by some placed at Castel Vetere on the Alaro.

1634 Said by Hardouin to be the modern Monasteraci or Monte Araci.

1635 Supposed to have been situate on a hill near the modern Padula.

1636 The modern Punta di Stilo, or “Point of the Column.”

1637 The modern Gulf of Squillace.

1638 Now Squillace.

1639 Now the Gulf of Saint Eufemia.

1640 “Hannibal’s Camp.” This was the seaport of Scyllacium, and its site was probably near the mouth of the river Corace.

1641 According to Strabo, B. vi., he intended to erect a high wall across, and so divide it from the rest of Italy; but if we may judge, from the use by Pliny of the word “intercisam,” it would seem that it was his design to cut a canal across this neck of land.

1642 According to Hardouin, the Carcines is the present river Corace, the Crotalus the Alli, the Semirus the Simari, the Arocas the Crocchio, and the Targines the Tacina.

1643 The present Strongolo, according to D’Anville and Mannert.

1644 The present Monte Monacello and Monte Fuscaldo are supposed to form part of the range called Clibanus.

1645 Meaning that it was sacred to Castor and Pollux. Such are the changes effected by lapse of time that these two islands are now only bleak rocks. The present locality of the other islands does not appear to be known.

1646 Now Capo di Colonne.

1647 The real distance from Acroceraunium, now Capo Linguetta, is 153 miles, according to Ansart.

1648 Or Crotona, one of the most famous Greek cities in the south of Italy. No ruins of the ancient city, said by Livy to have been twelve miles in circumference, are now remaining. The modern Cotrone occupies a part of its site. Pythagoras taught at this place.

1649 The modern Neto.

1650 Now called Turi, between the rivers Crati and Sibari or Roscile.

1651 A Greek town, famous for the inordinate love of luxury displayed by its inhabitants, whence a voluptuary obtained the name of a “Sybarite.” It was destroyed by the people of Crotona, who turned the waters of the Crathis upon the town. Its site is now occupied by a pestilential swamp.

1652 A famous Greek city founded on the territory of the former Ionian colony of Siris. The foundations of it may still be seen, it is supposed, near a spot called Policoro, three miles from the sea. The rivers are now called the Sinno and the Agri.

1653 The modern Salandra or Salandrella, and the Basiento.

1654 So called from its lying between the two seas. It was once a celebrated Greek city, but was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The place called Torre di Mare now occupies its site.

1655 The site of Aprustum is supposed to be marked by the village of Argusto, near Chiaravalle, about five miles from the Gulf of Squillace. Atina was situate in the valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. The ruins of Atina, which are very extensive, are to be seen near the village of Atena. Livy and Acron speak of Bantia as in Apulia, and not in Lucania. An ancient abbey, Santa Maria di Vanze, still marks its site.

1656 The ruins of Eburi are supposed to be those between the modern Eboli and the right bank of the Silarus. The remains of Grumentum, a place of some importance, are still to be seen on the river Agri, half a mile from the modern Saponara. Potenza occupies the site of ancient Potentia.

1657 The Sontini were probably situate on the river Sontia, now the Sanza, near Policastro. The Sirini probably had their name from the river Siris.

1658 Volcentum was situate near the Silarus, probably on the spot now called Bulcino or Bucino. The site of Numistro appears to be unknown.

1659 In his work “De Originibus.”

1660 Livy, B. viii., and Justin mention how that Alexander I. (in the year B.C. 326) was obliged to engage under unfavourable circumstances near Pandosia, on the Acheron, and fell as he was crossing the river; thus accomplishing a prophecy of Dodona which had warned him to beware of Pandosia and the Acheron. He was uncle to Alexander the Great, being the brother of Olympias. The site of Pandosia is supposed to have been the modern Castro Franco.

1661 This word is understood in the text, and Ansart would have it to mean that the “Gulf of Tarentum is distant,” &c., but, as he says, such an assertion would be very indefinite, it not being stated what part of the Gulf is meant. He therefore suggests that the most distant point from Lacinium is meant; which however, according to him, would make but 117 miles straight across, and 160 by land. The city of Tarentum would be the most distant point.

1662 Messapus, a Bœotian, mentioned by Strabo, B. ix.

1663 A son of Lycaon.

1664 Of Lacinium and Acra Iapygia. About seventy miles seems to be the real distance; certainly not, as Pliny says, 100.

1665 The modern Taranto to Brindisi.

1666 Probably situate at the further extremity of the bay on which Tarentum stood.

1667 According to D’Anville and Mannert, the modern Oria. Messapia is the modern Mesagna.

1668 The modern Santa Maria dell’ Alizza, according to D’Anville.

1669 The modern Gallipoli, in the Terra di Otranto. The real distance from Tarentum is between fifty and sixty miles.

1670 The “Iapygian Point,” the present Capo di Santa Maria di Leuca.

1671 Its site is occupied by the little village of Vaste near Poggiordo, ten miles S.W. of Otranto. In the sixteenth century considerable remains of Basta were still to be seen.

1672 The modern Otranto stands on its site. In the fourth century it became the usual place of passage from Italy to Greece, Apollonia, and Dyrrhachium. Few vestiges of the ancient city are now to be seen.

1673 Anciently Apollonia, in Illyria, now called Pallina or Pollona.

1674 This was M. Terentius Varro, called “the most learned of the Romans.” His design, here mentioned, seems however to have evinced neither learning nor discretion.

1675 Now called Soleto. The ruins of the ancient city, described by Galateo as existing at Muro, are not improbably those of Fratuertium, or, perhaps more rightly, Fratuentum.

1676 The modern Lecce is supposed to occupy its site.

1677 Called Valetium by Mela. Its ruins are still to be seen near San Pietro Vernotico, on the road from Brindisi to Lecce. The site is still called Baleso or Valesio.

1678 Ansart takes this to be the modern village of Cavallo, on the promontory of that name; but it is more probably the modern Ceglie, situate on a hill about twelve miles from the Adriatic, and twenty-seven miles west of Brindisi. Extensive ruins still exist there. There was another town of the same name in the south of Apulia.

1679 Now Brindisi. Virgil died here. The modern city, which is an impoverished place, presents but few vestiges of antiquity. The distance to Dyrrhachium is in reality only about 100 miles.

1680 They occupied probably a portion of the modern Terra di Bari.

1681 Said by Hardouin to be the modern Carouigna or Carovigni; but Mannert asserts it to be the same as the modern Ruvo.

1682 Or Gnatia, called by Strabo and Ptolemy a city of Apulia. It was probably the last town of the Peucetians towards the frontiers of Calabria. Horace, in the account of his journey to Brundusium (I. Sat. i. 97-100), makes it his last halting-place, and ridicules a pretended miracle shown by the inhabitants, who asserted that incense placed on a certain altar was consumed without fire being applied. The same story is referred to by Pliny, B. ii. c. 111, where he incorrectly makes Egnatia a town of the Salentini. Its ruins are visible on the sea-coast, about six miles S.E. of Monopali, and an old town still bears the name of Torre d’Agnazzo.

1683 Now Bari, a considerable city. In the time of Horace it was only a fishing town. It probably had a considerable intercourse with Greece, if we may judge from the remains of art found here.

1684 It is difficult to identify these rivers, from the number of small torrents between Brindisi and the Ofanto or Aufidus. According to Mannert, the Pactius is the present Canale di Terzo.

1685 An important city of Apulia, said to have been founded by Diomedes. Horace alludes to its deficiency of water. The modern Canosa is built on probably the site of the citadel of the ancient city, the ruins of which are very extensive.

1686 The ruins of this place are still to be seen at some little distance from the coast, near the village of Salpi. The story about Hannibal was very probably of Roman invention, for Justin and Frontinus speak in praise of his continence and temperance. Appian however gives some further particulars of this alleged amour.

1687 The present Manfredonia has arisen from the decay of this town, in consequence of the unhealthiness of the locality. Ancient Uria is supposed to have occupied the site of Manfredonia, and the village of Santa Maria di Siponto stands where Siponti stood.

1688 Probably the Cervaro. Hardouin says the Candelaro.

1689 The present Porto Greco occupies its site.

1690 Still known as Gargano.

1691 Probably the present Varano.

1692 Now Lago di Lesina. The Frento is now called the Fortore.

1693 To distinguish it from Teanum of the Sidicini, previously mentioned.

1694 Between the Tifernus and the Frento. Its remains are said to be still visible at Licchiano, five miles from San Martino. The Tifernus is now called the Biferno.

1695 A people of Central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast of the peninsula, from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the frontiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini.

1696 Strabo (B. vi.) refers to this tradition, where he mentions the oracle of Calchas, the soothsayer, in Daunia in Southern Italy. Here answers were given in dreams, for those who consulted the oracle had to sacrifice a black ram, and slept a night in the temple, lying on the skin of the victim.

1697 The modern Lucera in the Capitanata.

1698 The birth-place of Horace; now Venosa in the Basilicata.

1699 The modern Canosa stands on the site of the citadel of ancient Canusium, an Apulian city of great importance. The remains of the ancient city are very considerable.

1700 So called, it was said, in remembrance of Argos, the native city of Diomedes. It was an Apulian city of considerable importance. Some slight traces of it are still to be seen at a spot which retains the name of Arpa, five miles from the city of Foggia.

1701 The names of these two defunct cities were used by the Romans to signify anything frivolous and unsubstantial; just as we speak of “castles in the air,” which the French call “châteaux en Espagne.”

1702 Livy and Ptolemy assign this place to Samnium Proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. It was a very ancient city of the Samnites, but in the year B.C. 268, a Roman colony was settled there, on which occasion, prompted by superstitious feelings, the Romans changed its name Maleventum, which in their language would mean “badly come,” to Beneventum or “well come.” The modern city of Benevento still retains numerous traces of its ancient grandeur, among others a triumphal arch, erected A.D. 114 in honour of the emperor Trajan.

1703 The remains of Æculanum are to be seen at Le Grotte, one mile from Mirabella. The ruins are very extensive.

1704 There were probably two places called Aquilonia in Italy; the remains of the present one are those probably to be seen at La Cedogna. That mentioned by Livy, B. x. c. 38-43, was probably a different place.

1705 These are supposed by some to be the people of Abellinum mentioned in the first region of Italy. Nothing however is known of these or of the Abellinates Marsi, mentioned below.

1706 Æcæ is supposed to have been situate about nineteen miles from Herdonia, and to have been on the site of the modern city of Troja, an episcopal see. The Compsani were the people of Compsa, the modern Conza; and the Caudini were the inhabitants of Caudium, near which were the Fauces Caudinæ or “Caudine Forks,” where the Roman army was captured by the Samnites. The site of this city was probably between the modern Arpaja and Monte Sarchio; and the defeat is thought to have taken place in the narrow valley between Santa Agata and Moirano, on the road from the former place to Benevento, and traversed by the little river Iselero. The enumeration here beginning with the Æclani is thought by Hardouin to be of nations belonging to Apulia, and not to the Hirpini. The Æclani, here mentioned, were probably the people of the place now called Ascoli di Satriano, not far from the river Carapella. Of the Aletrini and Atrani nothing appears to be known.

1707 Probably the people of Affilæ, still called Affile, and seven miles from Subiaco. Inscriptions and fragments of columns are still found there.

1708 The people of Atinum, a town of Lucania, situate in the upper valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. Its site is ascertained by the ruins near the village of Atena, five miles north of La Sala. Collatia was situate on the Anio, now called the Teverone.

1709 The ruins of the town of Canuæ are still visible at a place called Canne, about eight miles from Canosa. The Romans were defeated by Hannibal, on the banks of the Aufidus in its vicinity, but there is considerable question as to the exact locality. The ruins of the town are still considerable.

1710 Forentum was the site of the present Forenza in the Basilicate. It is called by Horace and Diodorus Siculus, Ferentum. The ancient town probably stood on a plain below the modern one. Some remains of it are still to be seen.

1711 On the site of Genusium stands the modern Ginosa. The ruins of the ancient city of Herdonea are still to be seen in the vicinity of the modern Ordona, on the high road from Naples to Otranto. This place witnessed the defeat by Hannibal of the Romans twice in two years.

1712 The mention of the Hyrini, or people of Hyrium or Hyria, is probably an error, as he has already mentioned Uria, the same place, among the Daunian Apulians, and as on the sea-shore. See p. 228. It is not improbably a corrupted form of some other name.

1713 From the Frento, on the banks of which they dwelt.

1714 Viesta, on the promontory of Gargano, is said to occupy the site of the ancient Merinum.

1715 According to Mannert, the modern town of Noja stands on the site of ancient Netium.

1716 They inhabited Ruvo, in the territory of Bari, according to Hardouin.

1717 Their town was Silvium; probably on the site of the modern Savigliano.

1718 According to D’Anville their town was Strabellum, now called Rapolla.

1719 Their town is supposed to have been on the site of the modern Bovino, in the Capitanata.

1720 The people of Apamestæ; probably on the site of the modern San Vito, two miles west of Polignano.

1721 The people of Butuntum, now Bitonto, an inland city of Apulia, twelve miles from Barium, and five from the sea. No particulars of it are known. All particulars too of most of the following tribes have perished.

1722 D’Anville places their city, Sturni, at the present Ostuni, not far from the Adriatic, and fourteen leagues from Otranto.

1723 The people of Aletium already mentioned.

1724 Their town possibly stood on the site of the present village of Veste, to the west of Castro. The Neretini were probably the people of the present Nardo.

1725 Probably the people of the town which stood on the site of the present San Verato.

1726 They occupied what is now called the Abruzzo Inferiore.

1727 Now the Trigno.

1728 On the site of the present Vasto d’Ammone, five miles south of the Punta della Penna. There are numerous remains of the ancient city.

1729 According to Strabo Buca bordered on the territory of Teanum, which would place its site at Termoli, a seaport three miles from the mouth of the Biferno or Tifernus. Other writers, however, following Pliny, have placed it on the Punta della Penna, where considerable remains were visible in the 17th century. Ortona still retains its ancient name.

1730 Now the Pescara.

1731 The sites of their towns are unknown; but D’Anville supposes the Higher or Upper Carentum to have occupied the site of the modern Civita Burella, and the Lower one the Civita del Conte.

1732 Teate is supposed to be the present Chieti.

1733 The people of Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni. It is supposed to have remained in existence up to the tenth century. Its ruins are seen near Pentima, about the church of San Pelino.

1734 The site of Superæquum is occupied by the present Castel Vecchio Subequo.

1735 The people of Sulmo, a town ninety miles from Rome. It was the birth-place of Ovid, and was famous for the coldness of its waters, a circumstance mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia, B. iv. ch. x. l. 4. It is now called Sulmona.

1736 The people of Anxanum or Anxa, on the Sangro, now known as the city of Lanciano; in the part of which, known as Lanciano Vecchio, remains of the ancient town are to be seen.

1737 The people probably of Atina in Samnium, which still retains the same name.

1738 They probably took their name from the Lake Fucinus, the modern Lago Fucino, or Lago di Celano.

1739 They dwelt in a town on the verge of Lake Fucinus, known as Lucus.

1740 The ruins of Marruvium may still be seen at Muria, on the eastern side of Lake Fucinus.

1741 It has been suggested, from the discovery of a sepulchral inscription there, that Capradosso, about nine miles from Rieti in the upper valley of the Salto, is the site of ancient Cliternia. The small village of Alba retains the name and site of the former city of Alba Fucensis, of which there are considerable remains.

1742 The modern town of Carsoli is situate three miles from the site of ancient Carseoli, the remains of which are still visible at Civita near the Ostoria del Cavaliere. Ovid tells us that its climate was cold and bleak, and that it would not grow olives, though fruitful in corn. He also gives some other curious particulars of the place.—Fasti, B. iv. l. 683 et seq.

1743 The modern Civita Sant Angelo retains nearly its ancient name as that of its patron saint. It is situate on a hill, four miles from the Adriatic, and south of the river Matrinus, which separated the Vestini from the territories of Adria and Picenum.

1744 The village of Ofena, twelve miles north of Popoli, is supposed to retain the site of ancient Aufina. Numerous antiquities have been found here.

1745 Cato in his ‘Origines’ stated that they were so called from the fact of their being descended from the Sabines.

1746 The site of the town of Bovianum is occupied by the modern city of Bojano; the remains of the walls are visible. Mommsen however considers Bojano to be the site of only Bovianum Undecumanorum, or “of the Eleventh Legion,” and considers that the site of the ancient Samnite city of Bovianum Vetus is the place called Piettrabondante, near Agnone, twenty miles to the north, where there appear to be the remains of an ancient city.

1747 The people of Aufidena, a city of northern Samnium, in the upper valley of the Sagrus or Sagro. Its remains, which show it to have been a place of very great strength, are to be seen near the modern village of Alfidena, on a hill on the left bank of the modern Sangro.

1748 The people of Esernia, now Isernia.

1749 The people of Ficulia or Ficolea, a city of ancient Latium on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed that it was situate within the confines of the domain of Cesarini, and upon either the hill now called Monte Gentile, or that marked by the Torre Lupara.

1750 Sæpinum is supposed to be the same with the modern Supino or Sipicciano.

1751 The ruins of the ancient Sabine city of Amiternum are still visible at San Vittorino, a village about five miles north of Aquila. Considerable remains of antiquity are still to be seen there.

1752 The people of Cures, an ancient city of the Sabines, to the left of the Via Salaria, about three miles from the left bank of the Tiber, and twenty-four from Rome. It was the birth-place of Numa Pompilius. Its site is occupied by the present villages of Correse and Arci, and considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

1753 Nothing is known of this place; but it has been suggested that it stood in the neighbourhood of Forum Novum (or ‘New Market’), next mentioned, the present Vescovio.

1754 This Interamna must not be confounded with Interamna Lirinas, mentioned in C. 9, nor Interamna Nartis, mentioned in C. 19. It was a city of Picenum in the territory of the Prætutii. The city of Teramo stands on its site; and extensive remains of the ancient city are still in existence.

1755 From their town, Norsia in the duchy of Spoleto is said to derive its name.

1756 The people of Nomentum, now La Mentana.

1757 The people of Reate, now Rieti, below Mursia.

1758 The people of Trebulæ Mutuscæ, said to have stood on the site of the present Monte Leone della Sabina, below Rieti. This place is mentioned in the seventh Æneid of Virgil, as the “Olive-bearing Mutuscæ.”

1759 Their town was Trebula Suffena, on the site of the present Montorio di Romagna. The Tiburtes were the people of Tibur, the modern Tivoli; and the Tarinates were the inhabitants of Tarinum, now Tarano.

1760 The people of Cominium, the site of which is uncertain. It is supposed that there were three places of this name. One Cominium is mentioned in the Samnite wars as being about twenty miles from Aquilonia, while Cominium Ceritum, probably another place, is spoken of by Livy in his account of the second Punic War. The latter, it is suggested, was about sixteen miles north-west of Beneventum, and on the site of the modern Cerreto. The Comini here mentioned by Pliny, it is thought, dwelt in neither of the above places. The sites of the towns of many of the peoples here mentioned are also equally unknown.

1761 Solinus, B. ii., also states, that this place was founded by Marsyas, king of the Lydians. Hardouin mentions that in his time the remains of this town were said to be seen on the verge of the lake near Transaco.

1762 From the Greek σέβεσθαι “to worship.”

1763 The river Velinus, now Velino, rising in the Apennines, in the vicinity of Reate, overflowed its banks and formed several small lakes, the largest of which was called Lake Velinus, now Pie di Lugo or Lago, while a smaller one was called Lacus Reatinus, now Lago di Santa Susanna. In order to carry off these waters, a channel was cut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which the waters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to a spot where they fall from a height of several hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall is now known as the Fall of Terni or the Cascade Delle Marmore.

1764 Still called Monte Fiscello, near the town of Civita Reale. Virgil calls the Nar (now the Nera), “Sulphureâ Nar albus aquâ,” “The white Nar with its sulphureous waters.”—Æneid, vii. 517.

1765 A Sabine divinity said to have been identical with Victory. The Romans however made her the goddess of leisure and repose, and represented her as being worshiped by the husbandmen at harvest home, when they were “vacui,” or at leisure. She is mentioned by Ovid in the Fasti, B. vi. l. 307. The grove here alluded to was one of her sanctuaries.

1766 The modern Teverone, which rises near Tervi or Trevi.

1767 A town of the Æqui, now known as Subiaco. In its vicinity was the celebrated villa of Claudius and Nero, called the Villa Sublacencis.

1768 This was a town of the Sabines between Reate and Interocrea, in the vicinity of a small lake of the same name. It was a mere pool, according to Dionysius, being but 400 feet in diameter. It is supposed that the floating island was formed from the incrustations of carbonate of lime on the banks, which, becoming detached, probably collected in the middle. The lake still exists, but the floating island has disappeared. There are some fine ruins of Roman baths in the vicinity of the lake.

1769 It was a custom with the early Italian nations, especially the Sabines, in times of danger and distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of all the produce of the ensuing spring, that is, of the period from the first day of March till the last day of April. It is probable that in early times human sacrifices were the consequence; but at a later period the following custom was adopted instead. The children were allowed to grow up, and in the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year were with covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country, to go whithersoever chance or the guidance of the deity might lead them. The Mamertini in Sicily were said to have had this origin.

1770 Now the Aterno, which falls into the sea at Atri or Ortona.

1771 A famous city of Etruscan origin, which still retains its name of Adria or Atri. It had very considerable intercourse with Greece, and there are extensive remains of antiquity in its vicinity, towards Ravegnano. The river is still called the Vomano.

1772 These places are again mentioned in B. xiv. c. 8.

1773 Or “New Castle.” It probably occupied the site of the now deserted town of Santo Flaviano, near the banks of the river Tordino, the Batinus of Pliny, and below the modern town of Giulia Nova.

1774 The river still has the name of Tronto; Porto di Martin Scuro occupies the site of the town.

1775 Who had crossed over as colonists from the opposite coast of Illyricum.

1776 According to Mannert the river Tesino is the same as the Albula, and Tervium is the modern town of Grotte a Mare; but D’Anville makes the latter to be the town of Cupra next mentioned.

1777 This was called Cupra Maritima, to distinguish it from the town of the Cuprenses Montani, afterwards mentioned. It is said by Strabo to have had its name from the Tyrrhenian name of Juno. From the discovery of an inscription belonging to her temple here, there is little doubt that D’Anville is right in his suggestion that the site of Cupra is at Grotte a Mare, eight miles from the mouth of the Truentus or Tronto.

1778 “The Fortress of the Firmani,” five miles from Firmum, an important city of Picenum. The Fortress was situate at the mouth of the Leta, and was the port of the city. It is still called Porto di Fermo.

1779 Often called “Asculum Picenum” to distinguish it from Asculum in Apulia. It was a place of considerable strength, and played a great part in the Social War. It is unknown at what period it became a Roman colony. The modern city of Ascoli stands on its site.

1780 Now called Monte Novano, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

1781 Its site is supposed to have been that of the small town called Santo Elpidio a Mare, four miles from the sea, and the same distance north of Fermo. The remains of Potentia are supposed to be those in the vicinity of the modern Porto di Recanati. Numana is supposed to be the modern Umana, near the Cuscione, where, in the seventeenth century, extensive ruins were to be seen.

1782 It still retains its ancient name, which was derived from the Greek ἀγκὼν “the elbow,” it being situate on a promontory which forms a curve, and almost encloses the port. The promontory is still called Monte Comero. A triumphal arch, erected in honour of Trajan, who constructed a new mole for the port, is still in fine preservation, and there are remains of an amphitheatre.

1783 The modern city of Osimo stands on the site of Auximum, about twelve miles south-west of Ancona. Numerous inscriptions, statues, and other remains have been found there.

1784 Cluver conjectures that Beregra stood at Civitella di Tronto, ten miles north of Teramo; but nothing further relative to it is known. Cingulum was situate on a lofty mountain; the modern town of Cingoli occupies its site.

1785 “The mountaineers.” They inhabited Cupra Montana, which is supposed to have stood on the same site as the modern Ripa Transone.

1786 The people of Falaria or Faleria. There are considerable remains of this town about a mile from the village of Falerona, among which a theatre and amphitheatre are most conspicuous. The remains of Pausula are supposed to be those seen on the Monte dell’ Olmo. The town of the Ricinenses is supposed to have been on the banks of the Potenza, two miles from Macerata, where some remains were to be seen in the seventeenth century.

1787 Septempeda is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern San Severino, on the river Potenza. Tollentinum or Tollentura was probably on the site of the modern Tolentino. The town of the Treienses is supposed to have occupied a site near the modern San Severino, in the vicinity of Montecchio.

1788 A colony of the people of Pollentia was established at Urbs Salvia, occupying the site of the modern Urbisaglia on the bank of the Chiento.

1789 Cisalpine Gaul was so called because the inhabitants adopted the use of the Roman toga.

1790 This fanciful derivation would make their name to come from the Greek ὄμβρος “a shower.”

1791 Now the Esino.

1792 So called from the Galli Senones. The modern city of Sinigaglia occupies its site. The river Metaurus is still called the Metauro.

1793 “The Temple of Fortune.” At this spot the Flaminian Way joined the road from Ancona and Picenum to Ariminum. The modern city of Fano occupies the site, but there are few remains of antiquity.

1794 The modern Pesaro occupies the site of the town; the river is called the Foglia.

1795 This was a flourishing town of Umbria. Augustus showed it especial favour and bestowed on it the Grove and Temple of Clitumnus, though at twelve miles’ distance from the town. The modern town of Spello occupies its site, and very extensive remains of antiquity are still to be seen. It probably received two Roman colonies, as inscriptions mention the “Colonia Julia Hispelli” and the “Colonia Urbana Flavia.” It is considered probable that Hispellum, rather than Mevania, was the birth-place of the poet Propertius. Tuder is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Todi, on the Tiber.

1796 The people of Ameria, an important and flourishing city of Umbria. There are still remains of the ancient walls; the modern town of Amelia occupies its site.

1797 The site of Attidium is marked by the modern village of Attigio, two miles south of the city of Fabriano, to which the inhabitants of Attidium are supposed to have migrated in the middle ages.

1798 The people of Asisium. The modern city of Assisi (the birth-place of St. Francis) occupies its site. There are considerable remains of the ancient town.

1799 The people of Arna, the site of which is now occupied by the town of Civitella d’Arno, five miles east of Perugia. Some inscriptions and other objects of antiquity have been found here.

1800 The people of Æsis, situate on the river of the same name. It is still called Iesi. Pliny, in B. xi. c. 97, mentions it as famous for the excellence of its cheeses.

1801 The people of Camerinum, a city of Umbria. The present Camerino occupies its site. Its people were among the most considerable of Umbria. The site of the Casuentillani does not appear to be known.

1802 The people of Carsulæ, an Umbrian town of some importance. Its ruins are still visible about half way between San Germino and Acqua Sparta, ten miles north of Narni. Holsten states that the site was still called Carsoli in his time, and there existed remains of an amphitheatre and a triumphal arch in honour of Trajan. Nothing seems to be known of the Dolates.

1803 The people of Fulginium. From Cicero we learn that it was a municipal town. The modern city of Foligno has risen on its site. An inscription discovered here has preserved the name of Fulginia, probably a local divinity.

1804 The people of Forum Flaminii, situated on the Flaminian Way, where it first entered the Apennines, three miles from Fulginium. It was here that the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus were defeated and slain by Æmilianus, A.D. 256. The ruins at the spot called Giovanni pro Fiamma mark its site. The site of Forum Julii appears to be unknown, as also that of Forum Brentani.

1805 The people of Forum Sempronii, the only town in the valley of the Metaurus. The modern city of Fossombrone, two miles distant, has thence taken its name. Considerable vestiges of the ancient town are still to be seen. The battle in which Hasdrubal was defeated by the Roman consuls Livius and Nero, B.C. 207, was probably fought in its vicinity.

1806 The people of Iguvium, an ancient and important town of Umbria. Its site is occupied by the modern city of Gubbio. Interamna on the Nar has been previously mentioned.

1807 The people of the town of Mevania, now called Bevagna, in the duchy of Spoleto. The Mevanionenses were the people of Mevanio, or Mevaniolæ, in the vicinity of Mevania, and thought by Cluver to be the modern Galeata.

1808 Their town was Matilica, which still retains that name. It is situate in the Marches of Ancona.

1809 Their town still retains the name of Narni.

1810 Their town was surnamed Favonia and Camellaria, to distinguish it from several others of the same name. The present Nocera stands on its site.

1811 The people of Ocriculum, now Otricoli, previously mentioned.

1812 According to Hardouin, the ruins of Ostra are those near Monte Nuovo, now Sinigaglia, but D’Anville thinks that the modern Corinaldo marks its site.

1813 Nothing is known of the Plestini, nor yet of the Pitulani, who seem to have been a different people to those mentioned in the First Region.

1814 The town of Sentis, according to D’Anville and Mannert, was in the vicinity of the modern town of Sasso Ferrato.

1815 The people of Sarsina, an important town of Umbria, famous as being the birth-place of the comic poet Plautus. It is now called Sassina, on the Savio.

1816 The people of Spoletum, now Spoleto. It was a city of Umbria on the Via Flaminia, colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. In the later days of the Empire it was taken by Totilas, and its walls destroyed. They were however restored by Narses.

1817 The people of Suasa; the remains of which, according to D’Anville and Mannert, are those seen to the east of the town of San Lorenzo, at a place called Castel Leone.

1818 The monastery of Sestino is supposed to stand on the site of Sestinum, their town, at the source of the river Pesaro.

1819 The site of their town is denoted by the modern Sigello in the Marches of Ancona.

1820 Their town is supposed to have been also situate within the present Marches of Ancona, where they join the Duchy of Spoleto.

1821 Their town was Trebia. The modern Trevi stands on its site.

1822 The people of Tuficum, which Holsten thinks was situate between Matelica and Fabrianum, on the river called the Cesena.

1823 The site of Tifernum Tiberinum is occupied by the present Citta di Castello, and that of Tifernum Metaurense, or “on the Metaurus,” by Sant Angelo in Vado in the Duchy of Urbino. The first-named place was in the vicinity of the estates of the Younger Pliny.

1824 D’Anville and Mannert are of opinion that Urbania on the Metaurus, two leagues south-east of Urbino, marks the site of their town. The Hortenses probably dwelt on the site of the present Urbino.

1825 The site of their town was probably the present Bettona. The site of the towns of the peoples next mentioned is unknown.

1826 Nothing is known of its position. There were cities in Campania and Cisalpine Gaul also called Acerræ. The first has been mentioned under the First Region. Of the other places and peoples mentioned in this Chapter no particulars seem to have come down to us.

1827 Now the Conca. It is called “rapax Crustumium” by Lucan, B. ii. l. 406.

1828 One of the most important cities of Umbria. It played a conspicuous part in most of the internal wars of the Romans. The modern city of Rimini which stands on its site, still retains two striking monuments of its grandeur; the Roman bridge of marble, which crosses the river Ariminus, erected by Augustus and Tiberius, and a triumphal arch of marble, erected in honour of Augustus. The river Ariminus is now called the Marocchia, and the Aprusa is the Ausa.

1829 A papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the river Lusa to have been the ancient Rubicon, but the more general opinion is that the Pisatello, a little to the north of it, has better claims to that honour. On the north bank of the Rubicon a pillar was placed by a decree of the Senate, with an inscription giving notice that whoever should pass in arms into the Roman territory would be deemed an enemy to the state. It is especially celebrated in history by Cæsar’s passage across it at the head of his army, by which act he declared war against the republic. See Lucan, B. i. l. 200-230.

1830 The Sapis is the modern Savio, or Rio di Cesena; the Vitis is the Bevano, and the Anemo is the Roncone.

1831 Strabo and Zosimus however state that it was first founded by the Thessalians. Ravenna first came into notice on being made one of the two chief stations of the Roman fleet. The harbour which was made for it was called “Classes,” and between it and Ravenna sprang up the town of Cæsarea. Though not deemed unhealthy, it lay in a swampy district. Theodoric made it the capital of the kingdom of the Goths. The modern city stands on the site of the ancient town. The river Bedesis is now called the Montone.

1832 No remains of it are extant; but it is supposed that it stood near the entrance of the Lagunes of Comacchio.

1833 The modern Bologna stands on its site, and there are but few remains of antiquity to be seen.

1834 He probably means only the Etruscan cities north of the Apennines.

1835 The modern town of Brescello occupies its site. Here the Emperor Otho put an end to his life on learning the defeat of his troops by Vitellius. It appears to have been a strong fortress in the time of the Lombard kings.

1836 The modern Modena stands on its site. It was famous in the history of the civil wars after Cæsar’s death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here by M. Antonius, in the years B.C. 44 and 43, and under its walls the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain. Its vicinity, like that of Parma, was famous for the excellence of its wool.

1837 This was a Roman colony, which was enlarged by Augustus, and from him received the name of Colonia Julia Augusta. It was called, after the fall of the Western Empire, Chrysopolis or the “Golden City.” The modern city of Parma occupies its site.

1838 A Roman colony. The present city of Piacenza stands on its site.

1839 It still retains the name of Cesena, and is a considerable place. After the fall of the Western Empire it was used as a fortress of great strength. We shall find Pliny again mentioning it in B. xiv. c. 6, as famous for the goodness of its wines, a reputation which it still maintains. The name of Claterna, once a municipal town of importance, is still retained in part by a small stream which crosses the road nine miles from Bologna, and is called the Quaderna. An old church and a few houses, called Santa Maria di Quaderna, probably mark the site of the vicinity of the town, which was situate on the high road.

1840 This Forum Clodii is said by D’Anville to be the modern Fornocchia. Forum Livii is supposed to have occupied the site of the present city of Forli. Forum Popili or Forli Piccolo occupies the site of Forum or Foro Popili.

1841 This place is supposed to have stood on the spot where the episcopal town of Bertinoro now stands. In inscriptions it is called Forodruentinorum. Forum Cornelii, said to have been so called from the Dictator Sylla, occupied the site of the modern town of Imola. The poet Martial is said to have resided for some time in this town.

1842 The people of Faventia, now Faenza. Pliny, B. xix. c. i., speaks of the whiteness of its linen, for the manufacture of which it was celebrated. At this place Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metellus, the partisan of Sylla, in B.C. 82.

1843 The people of Fidentia. The present Borga di San Donnino stands on its site, which is between Parma and Placentia, fifteen miles from the former city.

1844 Cluver thinks that their town was on the site of the modern Castel Bondino.

1845 So named after Æmilius Lepidus. The people of Regium Lepidum, the site of whose town is occupied by the modern Reggio.

1846 Solonatium is supposed to have had the site of the modern Citta di Sole or Torre di Sole.

1847 Nothing certain is known of this people or their town, but it is thought by Rezzonico that by this name were meant those who occupied the wood-clad heights of the Apennines, above Modena and Parma. Cicero mentions a Saltus Gallicanus as being a mountain of Campania, but that is clearly not the spot meant here.

1848 Their town is thought to have stood on the same site as the modern Tenedo.

1849 Their town was perhaps on the same site as the modern Villac, on the river Nura.

1850 The modern city of Ombria probably stands on the site of Urbana, their town, of which considerable remains are still to be seen.

1851 These and the Senones were nations of Cisalpine Gaul. The Boii emigrated originally from Transalpine Gaul, by the Penine Alps, or the Pass of Great St. Bernard. They were completely subdued by Scipio Nasica in B.C. 191, when he destroyed half of their population, and deprived them of nearly half of their lands. They were ultimately driven from their settlements, and established themselves in the modern Bohemia, which from them takes its name. The Senones, who had taken the city of Rome in B.C. 390, were conquered and the greater part of them destroyed by the Consul Dolabella in B.C. 283.

1852 The Po, which rises in Monte Viso in Savoy.

1853 Already mentioned in C. 7 of the present Book.

1854 Ovid in his account of the adventure of Phaëton (Met. B. ii.) states that he fell into the river Padus.

1855 The Tanarus is still called the Tanaro. The Trebia, now the Trebbia, is memorable for the defeat on its banks of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 218. The Incia is the modern Enza or Lenza, the Tarus the Taro, the Gabellus the Secchia, the Scultenna the Panaro, and the Rhenus the Reno.

1856 The Stura still has the same name; the Orgus is the modern Orco. The streams called Duriæ are known as the Dora Baltea and the Dora Riparia; the Sessites is the Sesia, the Ticinus the Tessino, the Lambrus the Lambro, the Addua the Adda, the Ollius the Oglio, and the Mincius the Menzo.

1857 This seems to be the meaning of “gravis terræ,” unless it signifies “pressing heavily upon the land,” and so cutting out channels for its course. He has previously stated that, though rapid, it is not in the habit of carrying away its banks. See a very able article on the question whether the name Eridanus belonged originally to this river or to some other in the north of Europe, in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography under the word “Eridanus.”

1858 That is to say, the canal made by Augustus was so called.

1859 It was on this occasion that, after a stay of only a few days in Britain, he quitted the island, returned to Rome, and celebrated a splendid triumph. This outlet of the Po has now the name of Po di Primero.

1860 Now the Santerno, noted for the sluggishness of its waters.

1861 The Ostium Caprasiæ is now called the Porto Interito di Bell’ Ochio, the Ostium Sagis the Porto di Magnavacca; Volane, or Volana, is the south main branch of the river. The Ostia Carbonaria, mentioned below, was the north main branch, subdivided into several small branches; and the Fossæ or Fossiones Philistinæ connected the river, by means of the Tartarus, with the Athesis.

1862 The reading is doubtful here, and even this, which is perhaps the best, appears to be corrupt; for it is difficult to conceive how all the mouths previously mentioned could have been upon one canal, and besides it would seem that Olane was one of the natural mouths of the river.

1863 More generally Adria, from which, as Pliny says, the Adriatic takes its name. Either a Greek, or, what is more probable, as Pliny states, an Etruscan colony, it became the principal emporium of trade with the Adriatic, in consequence of which it was surrounded with canals and other works to facilitate its communications with other rivers. It is still called Adria, and in its vicinity to the south, considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

1864 So called from the Philistæi, said to have been the ancient inhabitants of the spot. They are now called the Bocca della Gnoca, the Bocca della Scovetta, the Busa delle Tole, the Sbocco dell’ Asinino, &c. The Ostia Carbonaria and the Fossæ Philistinæ were to the north of the ones previously mentioned.

1865 He seems to confound the Fosses of Philistina with the Tartarus (now Tartaro). That river however connected the Fosses of Philistina with the Athesis, now the Adige.

1866 Now the Bacchiglione.

1867 The modern Brondolo.

1868 Now Chioggia, formed by the rivers Brenta and Brentella. Hardouin thinks the Clodian Canal to be the same as the modern Fossa Paltana.

1869 Now Monteu di Po, below Chevasso, mentioned in the 7th Chapter.

1870 This place is supposed to have been situate in the vicinity of the modern Saluzzo, on the north bank of the Po. Segusio occupied the site of the modern Susa.

1871 Augusta of the Taurini. The present city of Turin stands on its site. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. With the exception of some inscriptions, Turin retains no vestiges of antiquity.

1872 The present city of Aosta occupies its site. This was also a Roman colony founded by Augustus, after he had subdued the Salassi. It was, as Pliny says in C. 5, the extreme point of Italy to the north. The remains of the ancient city are of extreme magnificence.

1873 The Grecian pass of the Alps was that now known as the Little St. Bernard; while the Penine pass was the present Great St. Bernard. Livy in his History, B. xxi. c. 38, points out the error of taking these mountains to have derived their name from the Pœni or Carthaginians. There is no doubt that they took their name from the Celtic word signifying a mountain, which now forms the “Pen” of the Welsh and the “Ben” of the Scotch.

1874 Now called Ivrea or Lamporeggio, at the entrance of the valley of the Salassi, the present Val d’Aosta. There are some remains of the ancient town to be seen.

1875 The present town of Vercelli stands on its site.

1876 Now called Novara, in the Duchy of Milan.

1877 It became a Roman municipal town, but owes its greatness to the Lombard kings who made it their capital, and altered the name to Papia, now Pavia.

1878 “Pompey’s Praises.” The present Lodi Vecchio marks its site.

1879 It was the capital of the Insubres, a Gallic nation, and was taken by the Romans in B.C. 222, on which it became a municipium and Roman colony. On the division of the empire by Diocletian, it became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the abode of the Emperors of the West till it was plundered by Attila, who transferred the seat of government to Ravenna. It afterwards became the capital of the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths, and was again sacked by the Goths in A.D. 539, and its inhabitants put to the sword. The present city, known to us as Milan, contains no remains of antiquity.

1880 The modern Como and Bergamo stand on their sites.

1881 From its name, signifying the “market of Licinius,” it would appear to be of Roman origin. Its site is supposed to have been at a place called Incino, near the town of Erba, between Como and Lecco, where inscriptions and other antiquities have been found.

1882 Deriving it from the Greek ὄρος, “a mountain,” and βίος, “life.”

1883 “Etiamnum prodente se altius quam fortunatius situm.” Hardouin seems to think that “se” refers to Cato, and that he informs us to that effect; but to all appearance, it relates rather to the town, which even yet, by its ruins, showed that it was perched too high among the mountains to be a fertile spot.

1884 The district of the Veneti. These people, taking refuge in the adjoining islands in the fifth century to escape the Huns under Attila, founded the modern city of Venice.

1885 Now called the Sile, which flows past Trevigio or Treviso.

1886 The mountainous district in the vicinity of Tarvisium, the modern Treviso.

1887 Situate in a marsh or lagune on the river Sile. It became a Roman colony after Pliny’s time, under the Emperor Trajan. Its villas are described by Martial as rivalling those of Baiæ. The Emperor Verus died here A.D. 169. The modern village of Altino is a very impoverished place. The Liquentia is now called the Livenza.

1888 Now called Oderzo, on the river Montegano, which flows into the Liquenza. The conduct of the people of this place, in the wars between Pompey and Cæsar, is mentioned by Lucan, in his Pharsalia, B. iv. l. 462.

1889 From inscriptions we find that this place was called Colonia Julia Concordia, from which it seems probable that it was one of the colonies founded by Augustus to celebrate the restoration of peace. It rapidly rose into importance, and is often mentioned during the later ages of the Roman Empire, as one of the most important cities in this part of Italy. It is now a poor village, with the same name, and no remains of antiquity beyond a few inscriptions.

1890 The Romatinum is the modern Lemene. Pliny seems to imply, (though from the uncertainty of the punctuation it is not clear,) that on the Romatinum there was a port of that name. If so, it would probably occupy the site of the present Santa Margherita, at the mouth of the Lemene.

1891 The greater Tiliaventum is the modern Tagliamento; and Hardouin suggests that the smaller river of that name is the Lugugnana.

1892 This river is supposed to be the same with the modern Stella, and the Varamus the Revonchi, which joins the Stella.

1893 Now called the Ansa. The Natiso is the modern Natisone, and the Turrus the Torre; the former flowed past Aquileia on the west, the latter on the east, in former times, but their course is probably now changed, and they fall into the Isonzo, four miles from the city.

1894 The capital of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of Northern Italy. In the year A.D. 452 it was besieged by Attila, king of the Huns, taken by storm, and plundered and burnt to the ground. On its site, which is very unhealthy, is the modern village of Aquileia, with about 1400 inhabitants. No ruins of any buildings are visible, but the site abounds with coins, shafts of columns, inscriptions, and other remains of antiquity.

1895 Ptolemy states that Concordia and Aquileia were situate in the district of the Carni.

1896 Still called the Timavo.

1897 Castel Duino stands on its site. It will be found again mentioned in B. xiv. C. 8, for the excellence of its wines.

1898 Now the Gulf of Trieste. Tergeste was previously an insignificant place, but made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The modern city of Trieste occupies its site.

1899 Most probably the modern Risano. Cluver and D’Anville are of that opinion, but Walckenaer thinks that it was a small stream near Muja Yecchia; which seems however to be too near Trieste.

1900 In the time of Augustus, and before Istria was added as a province to Italy.

1901 He alludes to an old tradition that the Argonauts sailed into the Ister or Danube, and then into the Save, till they came to the spot where the modern town of Upper Laybach stands, and that here they built Nauportus, after which they carried their ship across the mountains on men’s shoulders into the Adriatic. He intends to suggest therefore that the place had its name from the Greek ναῦς “a ship” and πορθμὸς “a passage.”

1902 The modern town of Laybach stands on its site. It is situate on the Save, and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia. The Roman remains prove that the ancient city exceeded the modern one in magnitude. According to tradition it was founded by the Argonauts. It subsequently became a Roman colony, with the title of Julia Augusta. It is again mentioned in C. 28.

1903 Now the Golfo di Quarnaro. Liburnia was separated from Istria on the north-west by the river Arsia, and from Dalmatia on the south by the river Titus or Kerka, corresponding to the western part of modern Croatia, and the northern part of modern Dalmatia. Iapydia was situate to the north of Dalmatia and east of Liburnia, or the present military frontier of Croatia, between the rivers Kulpa and Korana to the north and east, and the Velebich mountains to the south. Istria consisted of the peninsula which still bears the same appellation.

1904 This passage, “while others make it 225,” is omitted in many of the MSS. and most of the editions. If it is retained, it is not improbable that his meaning is, “and the circumference of Liburnia which joins it, with the Flanatic Gulf, some make 225, while others make the compass of Liburnia to be 180 miles.” It depends on the punctuation and the force of “item,” and the question whether the passage is not in a corrupt state; and it is not at all clear what his meaning really is.

1905 He alludes to C. Sempronius Tuditanus, Consul B.C. 129. He gained his victory over the Iapydes chiefly through the skill of his legatus, D. Junius Brutus. He was a distinguished orator and historian. He was the maternal grandfather of the orator Hortensius.

1906 This place is only mentioned by Pliny, but from an inscription found, it appears that the emperor Justin II. conferred on it the title of Justinopolis. It is thought that it occupied the site of the present town of Capo d’Istria.—Parentium stood on the site of the present Parenzo.

1907 It still retains its name.

1908 Supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Castel Nuovo, past which the Arsia, now the Arsa, flows.

1909 Since Istria had been added to it by Augustus.

1910 Livy seems to imply that Cremona was originally included in the territory of the Insubres. A Roman colony being established there it became a powerful city. It was destroyed by Antonius, the general of Vespasian, and again by the Lombard king Agilulfus in A.D. 605. No remains of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, are to be seen in the modern city.

1911 The modern city of Este stands on the site of Ateste. Beyond inscriptions there are no remains of this Roman colony.

1912 Asolo stands on its site.

1913 It was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under the Romans it was the most important city in the north of Italy, and by its commerce and manufactures attained great opulence. It was plundered by Attila, and, by Agilulfus, king of the Lombards, was razed to the ground. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of Livy. Modern Padua stands on its site, but has no remains of antiquity.

1914 Now called Belluno. Vicetia has been succeeded by the modern Vicenza.

1915 Mantua was not a place of importance, but was famous as being the birth-place of Virgil; at least, the poet, who was born at the village of Andes, in its vicinity, regarded it as such. It was said to have had its name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Virgil, in the Æneid, B. x., alludes to its supposed Tuscan origin.

1916 Led by Antenor, as Livy says, B. i.

1917 The Cenomanni, a tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, seem to have occupied the country north of the Padus, between the Insubres on the west and the Veneti on the east. From Polybius and Livy we learn that they had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled the Etruscans and occupied their territory. They were signalized for their amicable feelings towards the Roman state.

1918 Their town was Fertria or Feltria, the modern Feltre.

1919 The modern city of Trento or Trent occupies the site of Tridentum, their town. It is situate on the Athesis or Adige. It became famous in the middle ages, and the great ecclesiastical council met here in 1545.

1920 It was a Roman colony under the name of Colonia Augusta, having originally been the capital of the Euganei, and then of the Cenomanni. It was the birth-place of Catullus, and according to some accounts, of our author, Pliny. Modern Verona exhibits many remains of antiquity.

1921 D’Anville says that the ruins of this town are to be seen at the modern Zuglio.

1922 Hardouin thinks that their town, Flamonia, stood on the site of the modern Flagogna.

1923 Their town, Forum Julii, a Roman colony, stood on the site of the modern Friuli. Paulus Diaconus ascribes its foundation to Julius Cæsar.

1924 Supposed by Miller to have inhabited the town now called Nadin or Susied.

1925 Their town was probably on the site of the modern Quero, on the river Piave, below Feltre.

1926 Probably the same as the Tarvisani, whose town was Tarvisium, now Treviso.

1927 The conqueror of Syracuse. The fact here related probably took place in the Gallic war.

1928 This must be the meaning; and we must not, as Holland does, employ the number as signifying that of the lakes and rivers; for the Ticinus is in the eleventh region.

1929 Now the Adda, running through Lago di Como, the Tesino through Lago Maggiore, the Mincio through Lago di Garda, the Seo through Lago di Seo, and the Lambro now communicating with the two small lakes called Lago di Pusiano and Lago d’Alserio, which in Pliny’s time probably formed one large lake.

1930 Now Vado in Liguria, the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. Using the modern names, the line thus drawn runs past Vado, Turin, Como, Brescia, Verona, Vicenza, Oderzo, Aquileia, Trieste, Pola, and the Arsa.

1931 It is from this people that the group of volcanic hills between Padua and Verona derive their present name of Colli Euganei or the “Euganean Hills.” From the Triumpilini and the Camuni, the present Val Camonica and Val Trompia derive their names.

1932 Probably meaning, that for a sum of money they originally acknowledged their subjection to the Roman power.

1933 The Lepontii probably dwelt in the modern Val Leventina and the Val d’Osula, near Lago Maggiore; the Salassi in the Val d’Aosta.

1934 Making it to come from the Greek verb λείπω, “to leave behind.”

1935 As though being εὐγένειοι or εὐγενεῖς, “of honourable descent,” or “parentage.”

1936 Strabo mentions the Stoni or Stœni among the minor Alpine tribes. Mannert thinks that they dwelt near the sources of the river Chiese, about the site of the modern village of Storo.

1937 It has been suggested that from them the modern Valtelline takes its name.

1938 Hardouin suggests that the Suanetes, who are again mentioned, are the people here meant.

1939 They are supposed to have dwelt in the present canton of Martignac in the Valais, and the Vaudois.

1940 They dwelt in the Tarantaise, in the duchy of Savoy. The village called Centron still retains their name.

1941 The states subject to Cottius, an Alpine chief, who having gained the favour of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this portion of the Alps, with the title of Præfect. These states, in the vicinity of the modern Mount Cenis, seem to have extended from Ebrodunum or Embrun in Gaul, to Segusio, the modern Susa, in Italy, including the Pass of Mont Genèvre. The territory of Cottius was united by Nero to the Roman empire, as a separate province called the “Alpes Cottiæ.”

1942 They dwelt in the vicinity of Ebrodunum or Embrun already mentioned.

1943 The “mountaineers.” Some editions read here “Appuani,” so called from the town of Appua, now Pontremoli.

1944 The Vagienni, and the Capillati Ligures, or “Long-haired Ligurians,” have been previously mentioned in Chap. 7.

1945 The trophy or triumphal arch which bore this inscription is that which was still to be seen at Torbia near Nicæa in Illyria, in the time of Gruter, who has given that portion of the inscription which remained unobliterated, down to “gentes Alpinæ,” “the Alpine nations.” Hardouin speaks of another triumphal arch in honour of Augustus at Segusio or Susa in Piedmont, which appears to have commenced in a somewhat similar manner, but only the first twelve words were remaining in 1671.

1946 Adopted son of his great uncle Julius Cæsar.

1947 Most of the MSS. omit the figures XVII here, but it is evidently an accident; if indeed they were omitted in the original.

1948 They are supposed to have occupied the Val Venosco, at the sources of the Adige. The Isarci dwelt in the Val de Sarra or Sarcha, near Val Camonica; and the Breuni in the Val Brounia or Bregna, at the source of the Tessino.

1949 D’Anville thinks that they inhabited the Val d’Agno, near Trento, between Lake Como and the Adige. He also detects the name of the Focunates in the village of Vogogna.

1950 They inhabited the banks of the river Lech, their town being, according to Strabo, Damasia, afterwards Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg.

1951 Probably the Sarunetes, already mentioned. The Brixentes inhabited the modern Brixen in the Tyrol. The Lepontii have been previously mentioned. The Seduni occupied the present Sion, the capital of the Valais. The Salassi have been already mentioned. According to Bouche, the Medulli occupied the modern Maurienne in Savoy. The Varagri dwelt in Le Chablais.

1952 The Uceni, according to Hardouin, occupied Le Bourg d’Oysans in the modern Graisivaudan; the Caturiges, the modern Chorges according to Ansart; the Brigiani, probably Briançon, and the Nemaloni, as Hardouin thinks, the place called Miolans.

1953 They probably dwelt in the Ville de Seyne, in Embrun; the Esubiani near the river Hubaye, in the Vallée de Barcelone in Savoy; the Veamini in Senez, the Triulatti at the village of Alloz, the Ecdini near the river Tinea, and the Vergunni in the vicinity of the district of Vergons.

1954 The Eguituri probably dwelt near the modern town of Guillaumes, the Oratelli at the place now called Le Puget de Théniers, and the Velauni near the modern Bueil.

1955 Or subjects of Cottius, previously mentioned.

1956 A mistake for L. Æmilius Papus. He and C. Regulus were Consuls in B.C. 225. They successfully opposed the Cisalpine Gauls, who invaded Italy; but Regulus was slain in the engagement.

1957 It is difficult to say what is the exact force of “parci” here; whether in fact it means that Italy shall be wholly exempted from such treatment, as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals were to be strictly kept in reserve as a last resource. Ajasson, in his Translation, seems to take the former view, Littré the latter.

1958 From the river now called the Arsa to that called the Kerka.

1959 Hardouin thinks that “Ismeni” is the proper reading here; but all the MSS. seem to be against him.

1960 Mentioned in the next Chapter.

1961 Their town was Aluus or Aloüs.

1962 Their town was Flanona, which gave name to the Sinus Flanaticus or Golfo di Quarnero. The chief town of the Lopsi was Lopsica, and of the Varvarini, Varvaria.

1963 The island of Fertina is supposed to have been the modern Berwitch or Parvich. Curicta is now called Karek or Veglia. The Illyrian snails mentioned by our author, B. ix. c. 56, are very numerous here. Caius Antonius, the brother of Marcus, acting under Julius Cæsar, was besieged here by Libo. See the interesting account in Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. iv. l. 402-464.

1964 The places on their sites are now called Albona, Fianona, Tersact or Tersat near Fiume, Segna, Lopsico, Ortopia, and Veza.

1965 Now Carin. Ænona is now called Nona, and the Tedanius is the modern Zermagna.

1966 The whole of this group of islands were sometimes called the Absyrtides, from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, who according to tradition was slain there. See the last Chapter, p. 266. Ovid, however, in his “Tristia,” states that, this took place at Tomi, on the Pontus Euxinus or Black Sea, the place of his banishment.

1967 Said by D’Anville to be now called Arbe, and Crexa to be the modern Cherso. Gissa is thought to have been the modern Pago.

1968 It was the capital of Liburnia. The city of Zara or Zara Vecchia stands on its site. There are but little remains of the ancient city.

1969 Supposed to be the present Mortero.

1970 The Titus or Kerka. Scardona still retains its name.

1971 Now called the Cabo di San Nicolo.

1972 This measurement would make it appear that the present Sabioncello is meant, but that it ought to come below, after Narona. He probably means the quasi peninsula upon which the town of Tragurium, now Trau Vecchio, was situate; but its circumference is hardly fifty miles. So, if Sicum is the same as the modern Sebenico, it ought to have been mentioned previously to Tragurium.

1973 Spalatro, the retreat of Diocletian, was in the vicinity of Salona. Its ancient name was Spolatum, and at the village of Dioclea near it, that emperor was born. On the ruins of the once important city of Salona, rose the modern Spalato or Spalatro.

1974 Its site is unknown, though D’Anville thinks that it was probably that of the modern Tain.

1975 Clissa is supposed to occupy its site. Tribulium is probably the modern Ugliane.

1976 The people of the island of Issa, now Lissa, off the coast of Liburnia. It was originally peopled by a Parian or a Syracusan colony. It was famous for its wine, and the beaked ships “Lembi Issaici,” rendered the Romans good service in the war with Philip of Macedon.

1977 The modern Almissa stands on its site; and on that of Rataneum, Mucarisca.

1978 Now called Narenta; the river having the same name.

1979 The localities of all these peoples are unknown.

1980 Or Epidaurus. It is not noticed in history till the civil war between Pompey and Cæsar, when, having declared in favour of the latter, it was besieged by M. Octavius. The site of it is known as Ragusa Vecchia, or Old Ragusa, but in the Illyric language it is called Zaptal. Upon its destruction, its inhabitants moved to Rausium, the present Ragusa. There are no remains extant of the old town.

1981 It still retains the name of Risine, upon the Golfo di Cattaro, the ancient Sinus Rhizonicus.

1982 In the former editions called “Ascrivium.” The modern Cattaro is supposed to occupy its site. Butua is the modern Budua, and Olcinium, Dulcigno. It is probable that the derivation of the name of this last place, as suggested by Pliny, is only fanciful.

1983 Now called Drin and Drino.

1984 Now called Scutari or Scodar, the capital of the province called by the Turks Sangiac de Scodar.

1985 According to Hardouin, the modern Endero stands on the site of their capital.

1986 Grabia, mentioned by Pouqueville, in his “Voyage de la Grèce,” seems to retain the name of this tribe.

1987 Pouqueville is of opinion that they occupied the district now known as Musaché.

1988 Dalechamp thinks that the two words “Retinet nomen” do not belong to the text, but have crept in from being the gloss of some more recent commentator. They certainly appear to be out of place. This promontory is now called Cabo Rodoni.

1989 The modern Albania.

1990 Pouqueville is of opinion that they inhabited the district about the present village of Presa, seven leagues N.E. of Durazzo.

1991 From Ptolemy we learn that Lychnidus was their town; the site of which, according to Pouqueville, is still pointed out at a spot about four leagues south of Ochrida, on the eastern bank of the Lake of Ochrida.

1992 Now called El Bassan; though Pouqueville says Tomoros or De Caulonias. Commencing in Epirus, they separated Illyricum from Macedonia. See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. vi. l. 331.

1993 The Romans are said to have changed its Greek name Epidamnum, from an idea that it was inauspicious, as implying “damnum” or “ruin.” It has been asserted that they gave it the name of Durrhachium or Dyrrhachium, from “durum,” rugged, on account of the ruggedness of its locality. This however cannot be the case, as the word, like its predecessor, is of Greek origin. Its unfortunate name, “Epidamnus,” is the subject of several puns and witticisms in that most amusing perhaps of all the plays of Plautus, the Menæchmi. It was of Corcyræan origin, and after playing a distinguished part in the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar, was granted by Augustus to his veteran troops. The modern Durazzo stands on its site.

1994 Now called the Voioussa.

1995 The monastery of Pollina stands on its site. It was founded by the Corinthians and Corcyræans. There are scarcely any vestiges of it remaining.

1996 See further mention of this spot in B. ii. c. 110.

1997 Pouqueville states that the ruins of Amantia are to be seen near the village of Nivitza, on the right bank of the river Suchista. The remains of Bullis, the chief town of the Buliones, according to the same traveller, are to be seen at a place called Gradista, four miles from the sea.

1998 The same writer states that Oricum was situate on the present Gulf De la Vallona or d’Avlona, and that its port was the place now called by the Greeks Porto Raguseo, and by the Turks Liman Padisha.

1999 The “Heights of Thunder.” They were so called from the frequent thunderstorms with which they were visited. The range however was more properly called the “Ceraunii Montes,” and the promontory terminating it “Acroceraunii” or “Acroceraunia,” meaning “the end of the Ceraunii.” The range is now called the Mountains of Khimara, and the promontory, Glossa, or in Italian, Linguetta, meaning “the Tongue.”

2000 In C. 15 of the present Book.

2001 About 70 English miles is the distance.

2002 The Donau or Danube.

2003 Noricum corresponded to the greater part of the present Styria and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg.

2004 According to D’Anville the modern Wolk-Markt, on the river Drau or Drave. Celeia is the modern Cilley in Carniola. Teurnia, according to Mannert, is the Lurnfelde, near the small town of Spital.

2005 According to Mannert it was situate near the modern town of Innichen, near the sources of the Drave.

2006 Supposed to be the same as the Vindobona or Vindomona of other authors, standing on the site of the modern city of Vienna.

2007 According to Cluver, it stood on the site of the modern Clausen in Bavaria.

2008 Mannert says that this place was the same with the modern Solfeld, near Klagenfurt.

2009 D’Anville and other writers think that this is the Neusiedler See, not far from Vienna. Mannert, however, is of opinion that the name ought to be written Pelso, and that the modern Balaton or Platten See is meant.

2010 The mountainous and woody tract in the vicinity of the Lake Balaton, on the confines of ancient Noricum and Pannonia.

2011 Now Sarvar on the river Raab, on the confines of Austria and Hungary.

2012 According to Hardouin, the modern Sopron or Œdenburg.

2013 This province corresponded to the eastern part of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the whole of Hungary between the Danube and Saave, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Bosnia. It was reduced by Tiberius, acting under the orders of Augustus.

2014 Now Laybach, previously mentioned in c. 22. Sissia has been succeeded by the modern Sissek on the Saave.

2015 The modern Draave or Drau.

2016 Now the Sau or Saave.

2017 According to Hardouin the Serretes and the Serrapilli inhabited the modern Carinthia on both sides of the Draave. The sites of the other nations here mentioned are unknown.

2018 So called from the river Colapis. The other tribes are unknown.

2019 Probably the same as the mountain range near Warasdin on the Draave. The nations mentioned here dwelt on the western and eastern slopes of this range.

2020 Now known as Zagrabia.

2021 Now the Culpa.

2022 Dion Cassius, B. xix., says that the river Colapis or Colops flowed past the walls of the town of Siscia, but that Tiberius Cæsar caused a trench to be dug round the town, and so drew the river round it, leading it back on the other side into its channel. He calls the island Segetica.

2023 Now the Bossut. Sirmium occupied the site of the present Sirmich.

2024 The modern Tzeruinka, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

2025 Now the Walpo and the Sarroiez, according to Hardouin; or the Bosna and the Verbas, according to Brotier and Mannert.

2026 Corresponding to the present Servia and Bulgaria.

2027 Of the Danube with the Saave or Savus just mentioned.

2028 Now the Morava, which runs through Servia into the Danube. The Pingus is probably the Bek, which joins the Danube near Gradistic. The Timachus is the modern Timoch, and the Œscus is the Iscar in Bulgaria.

2029 Now called the Vid, the Osma, and the Jantra, rising in the Balkan chain.

2030 Ajasson remarks here that the name of Illyricum was very vaguely used by the ancients, and that at different periods, different countries were so designated. In Pliny’s time that region comprised the country between the Arsia and the mouth of the Drilo, bounding it on the side of Macedonia. It would thus comprehend a part of modern Carniola, with part of Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Upper Albania. In later times this name was extended to Noricum, Pannonia, Mœsia, Dacia, Macedonia, Thessalia, Achaia, Epirus, and even the Isle of Crete.

2031 Here meaning that part of the Mediterranean which lies between Italy and Greece south of the Adriatic. In more ancient times the Adriatic was included in the Ionian Sea, which was probably so called from the Ionian colonies which settled in Cephallenia and the other islands on the western coast of Greece.

2032 More properly “Diomedeæ,” being a group of small islands off the coast of Apulia now called Isole di Tremiti, about eighteen miles from the mouth of the Fortore. They were so called from the fable that here the companions of Diomedes were changed into birds. A species of sea-fowl (which Pliny mentions in B. x. c. 44) were said to be the descendants of these Greek sailors, and to show a great partiality for such persons as were of kindred extraction. See Ovid’s Metamorphoses, B. xiv. l. 500. The real number of these islands was a matter of dispute with the ancients, but it seems that there are but three, and some mere rocks. The largest of the group is the island of San Domenico, and the others are San Nicola and Caprara. The small island of Pianosa, eleven miles N.E., is not considered one of the group, but is not improbably the Teutria of Pliny. San Domenico was the place of banishment of Julia, the licentious daughter of Augustus.

2033 Now called the Bagni di Monte Falcone. See B. ii. c. 106.

2034 Now called Cherso and Osero, off the Illyrian coast. Ptolemy mentions only one, Apsorrus, on which he places a town of that name and another called Crepsa. The Pullaria are now called Li Brioni, in the Sinus Flanaticus, opposite the city of Pola.

2035 See p. 258.

2036 In B. xxxvii. c. 11, he again mentions this circumstance, and states that some writers have placed them in the Adriatic opposite the mouths of the Padus. Scymnus of Chios makes mention of them in conjunction with the Absyrtides. This confusion probably arose from the fact previously noted that the more ancient writers had a confused idea that the Ister communicated with the Adriatic, at the same time mistaking it probably for the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic. At the mouth of this last-mentioned river, there were Electrides or “amber-bearing” islands.

2037 “Vanitatis.”

2038 Crexa, Grissa, and Colentum, in c. 25.

2039 According to Brotier, these are situate between the islands of Zuri and Sebenico, and are now called Kasvan, Capri, Smolan, Tihat, Sestre, Parvich, Zlarin, &c. Some writers however suggest that there were no islands called Celadussæ, and that the name in Pliny is a corruption of Dyscelados in Pomponius Mela; which in its turn is supposed to have been invented from what was really an epithet of Issa, in a line of Apollonius Rhodius, B. iv. l. 565. Ἰσσά τε δυσκέλαδος, “and inauspicious Issa.” See Brunck’s remarks on the passage.

2040 Now Brazza. According to Brotier the island is still celebrated for the delicate flavour of the flesh of its goats and lambs. Issa is now called Lissa, and Pharia is the modern Lesina. Baro, now Bua, lies off the coast of Dalmatia, and was used as a place of banishment under the emperors.

2041 Now Curzola, or, in the Sclavonic, Karkar. It obtained its name of Nigra or Melæna, “black,” from the dark colour of its pine woods. Sir G. Wilkinson describes it in his “Dalmatia and Montenegro,” vol. i.

2042 Now called Meleda or Zapuntello. It is more generally to the other island of Melita or Malta that the origin of the “Melitæi” or Maltese dogs is ascribed. Some writers are of opinion that it was upon this island that St. Paul was shipwrecked, and not the larger Melita.

2043 So called from their resemblance to a stag, ἔλαφος, of which the modern Giupan formed the head, Ruda the neck, Mezzo the body, Calamotta the haunches, and the rock of Grebini or Pettini the tail. They produce excellent wine and oil, and are looked upon as the most valuable part of the Ragusan territory.

2044 Still known as Sasino. It is ten miles from Ragusa, the port of Oricum, according to Pouqueville.

2045 The original numbers are lost.

2046 He was a Spaniard by birth, a native of Mellaria in Hispania Bætica. He is mentioned by Cicero as a man of great learning, and is probably the same person that is mentioned by Ovid in his Pontic Epistles, B. iv. ep. xvi. l. 29, as a distinguished tragic writer.

2047 See end of B. ii.

2048 See end of B. ii.

2049 M. Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder; famous as a statesman, a patriot, and a philosopher. He wrote “De Re Rustica,” a work which still survives, and “Letters of Instruction to his Son,” of which only some fragments remain. He also wrote a historical work called “Origines,” of which Pliny makes considerable use. Of this also only a few fragments are left. His life has been written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and Aurelius Victor.

2050 M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished partisan of Augustus, to whose niece Marcella he was married, but he afterwards divorced her for Julia, the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and the widow of Marcellus. He distinguished himself in Gaul, at Actium, and in Illyria. He constructed many public works at Rome, and among them the Pantheon; he also built the splendid aqueduct at Nismes. He died suddenly in his 51st year. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, who pronounced his funeral oration. He wrote memoirs of his own life. Pliny often refers to the “Commentarii” of Agrippa, by which are meant, it is supposed, certain official lists drawn up by him in the measurement of the Roman world under Augustus. His map of the world is also mentioned by Pliny in c. 3 of the present Book.

2051 See end of B. ii.

2052 From Servius, Suetonius and Plutarch we learn that Augustus wrote Memoirs of his Life, in thirteen books; from Suetonius, that he composed a Summary of the Empire (which was probably that referred to in the above note on Agrippa); and from Quintilian, Aulus Gellius, and Pliny, B. xviii. c. 38, that he published Letters written to his grandson Caius.

2053 P. Terentius Varro, surnamed Atacinus, from the Atax, a river of Gallia Narbonensis, in which province he was born, B.C. 82. Of his “Argonautica,” his “Cosmographia” (probably the same with his “Iter”), his “Navales Libri,” and his Heroic and Amatory Poems, only a few fragments now exist. Of his life nothing whatever is known.

2054 Valerias Antias. See end of B. ii.

2055 C. Julius Hyginus, a native of Spain, and freedman of Augustus, by whom he was placed at the Palatine Library. He lived upon terms of intimacy with Ovid. He wrote works on the sites of the cities of Italy, the Nature of the Gods, an account of the Penates, an account of Virgil (probably the same as the work called “Commentaries on Virgil”), on the Families of Trojan descent, on Agriculture, the “Propempticon Cinnæ,” the Lives of Illustrious Men (quoted by John of Salisbury in his “Polycraticon”), a book of Examples, and a work on the Art of War, also mentioned by John of Salisbury. A book of Fables, and an Astronomical Poem, in four books, are ascribed to him, but they are probably productions of a later age.

2056 L. Antistius Vetus, Consul with Nero, A.D. 55. While commanding in Germany he formed the project of connecting the Moselle and the Saone by a canal, thus establishing a communication between the Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean. Nero having resolved on his death, he anticipated his sentence by opening his veins in a warm bath. His mother-in-law Sextia, and his daughter Pollentia, in a similar manner perished with him.

2057 He was born, it is supposed, at Tingentera, or Cingentera, on the bay of Algesiras, and probably flourished in the reign of Claudius. He was the first Roman author who wrote a treatise on Geography. It is still extant, and bears marks of great care, while it is written in pure and unaffected language.

2058 C. Scribonius Curio, the third known of that name. He was the first Roman general who advanced as far as the Danube. Like his son of the same name, he was a violent opponent of Julius Cæsar. He was eloquent as an orator, but ignorant and uncultivated. His orations were published, as also an invective against Cæsar, in form of a dialogue, in which his son was introduced as one of the interlocutors. He died B.C. 53.

2059 L. Cælius Antipater. See end of B. ii.

2060 L. Arruntius, Consul, A.D. 6. Augustus declared in his last illness that he was worthy of the empire. This, with his riches and talents, rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. Being charged as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, he put himself to death by opening his veins. It appears not to be certain whether it was this person or his father who wrote a history of the first Punic war, in which he imitated the style of Sallust.

2061 Statius Sebosus. See end of B. ii.

2062 Licinius Crassus Mucianus. See end of B. ii.

2063 Of this writer no particulars whatever are known.

2064 In most editions this name appears as L. Ateius Capito, but Sillig separates them, and with propriety it would appear, as the name of Capito the great legist was not Lucius. Ateius here mentioned was probably the person surnamed Prætextatus, and Philologus, a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito. For Sallust the historian he composed an Abstract of Roman History, and for Asinius Pollio he compiled precepts on the Art of Writing. His Commentaries were numerous, but a few only were surviving in the time of Suetonius.

2065 C. Ateius Capito, one of the most famous of the Roman legists, and a zealous partisan of Augustus, who had him elevated to the Consulship A.D. 5. He was the rival of Labeo, the republican jurist. His legal works were very voluminous, and extracts from them are to be found in the Digest. He also wrote a work on the Pontifical Rights and the Law of Sacrifices.

2066 A distinguished grammarian of the latter part of the first century B.C. He was entrusted by Augustus with the education of his grandsons Caius and Lucius Cæsar. He died at an advanced age in the reign of Tiberius. He wrote upon antiquities, history, and philosophy: among his numerous works a History of the Etruscans is mentioned, also a treatise on Orthography. Pliny quotes him very frequently.

2067 See end of B. ii.

2068 He is mentioned in c. 17, but nothing more is known of him.

2069 Nothing is known of him. The younger Pliny addressed three Epistles to a person of this name, B. ii. Ep. 15, B. v. Ep. 4, 14.

2070 See end of B. ii.

2071 Also called by Pliny Cornelius Alexander. Suidas states that he was a native of Ephesus and a disciple of Crates, and during the war of Sylla in Greece was made prisoner and sold as a slave to C. Lentulus, who made him the tutor of his children, and afterwards restored him to freedom. Servius however says that he received the franchise from L. Cornelius Sylla. He was burnt with his house at Laurentum. Other writers say that he was a native of Catiæum in Lesser Phrygia. The surname of “Polyhistor” was given to him for his prodigious learning. His greatest work seems to have been a historical and geographical account of the world, in forty-two books. Other works of his are frequently mentioned by Plutarch, Photius, and other writers.

2072 The historian of the Peloponnesian war, and the most famous, perhaps, of all the ancient writers in prose.

2073 Of Eresus in Lesbos; the favourite disciple of Aristotle, and designated by him as his successor in the presidency of the Lyceum. He composed more than 200 works on various subjects, of which only a very few survive.

2074 See end of B. ii.

2075 See end of B. ii.

2076 He is frequently mentioned by Cicero, and was famous for his eloquence. Pliny informs us in his 34th book, that from his hatred of the Romans he was called the “Roman-hater.” It is probable that he was the writer of a Periegesis, or geographical work, from which Pliny seems to quote.

2077 No particulars of this author are known. He probably wrote on geography.

2078 He is again mentioned by Pliny in B. iv. c. 13, and B. vi. c. 31, and by Solinus, c. xxii. 60. It is supposed that he was the author of a Periplus or Circumnavigation of the Earth, mentioned by Pliny B. vii. c. 48; but nothing further is known of him.

2079 Diodorus Siculus was a native of Agyra or Agyrium, and not of Syracuse, though he may possibly have resided or studied there. It cannot be doubted that he is the person here meant, and Pliny refers in his preface by name to his Βιβλιοθήκη, “Library,” or Universal History. A great portion of this miscellaneous but valuable work has perished. We have but few particulars of his life; but he is supposed to have written his work after B.C. 8.

2080 Of Syracuse; an historian probably of the time of Philip and Alexander. He was the author of a Periplus of Asia, and an account of Sicily and Sardinia. From his stories in the last he obtained the name of “Thaumatographus” or “writer of wonders.”

2081 Of Calliphanes the Geographer nothing is known.

2082 Probably Timagenes, the rhetorician of Alexandria. He was taken prisoner and brought to Rome, but redeemed from captivity by Faustus, the son of Sylla. He wrote many works, but it is somewhat doubtful whether the “Periplus,” in five Books, was written by this Timagenes. He is also supposed to have written a work on the Antiquities of Gaul.

2083 Now called Monti della Chimera, or Mountains of Khimara. See p. 262.

2084 The Ægean Sea, the present Archipelago.

2085 This country contained, according to Pouqueville, the present Sangiacs of Janina, Delvino, and Chamouri, with the Vavodilika or Principality of Arta. This name was originally given to the whole of the west of Greece, from the Promontory of Acroceraunia to the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to Corcyra and the island of Cephallenia.

2086 This district, according to Pouqueville, occupied the present Cantons of Chimera, Iapouria, Arboria, Paracaloma, and Philates.

2087 They occupied the site of the present Paramythia, according to Pouqueville.

2088 Antigonia was about a mile distant, Pouqueville says, from the modern town of Tebelen.

2089 From Ἀ “not,” and ὄρνις “a bird.” Its site is now unknown. There were many places of this name. Avernus or Aornos in Campania has been previously mentioned.

2090 The remains of Cestria are still to be seen at Palea Venetia, near the town of Filiates. Pouqueville calls the place Chamouri.

2091 According to Pouqueville, the modern Zagori stands on the site of Perrhæbia. Pindus is sometimes called Grammos, but is still known by its ancient name.

2092 Cassiope or Cassope stood near the sea, and near the present village of Kamarina. Its extensive ruins are still to be seen.

2093 Their district, according to Pouqueville, was in the present Canton of Drynopolis.

2094 The Selli or Sellæ lived in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter at Dodona, in the modern canton of Souli, according to Pouqueville.

2095 The country about Dodona is called Hellopia by Hesiod. By some the Helli or Hellopes are considered the same as the Selli. Pouqueville thinks that the Hellopes dwelt in the modern cantons of Janina, Pogoniani, Sarachovitzas, and Courendas, and that the temple of Jupiter stood at the spot now called Proskynisis, near Gardiki, the town of Dodona being near Castritza. Leake is of the same opinion as to the site of the town; but, as has been a subject of remark, it is the only place of celebrity in Greece of which the situation is not exactly known. Leake however thinks that the temple stood on the peninsula now occupied by the citadel of Joanina.

2096 Pouqueville thinks that this is the hill to be seen at the modern village of Gardiki. He is also of opinion that the springs here mentioned are those at the modern village of Besdounopoulo. His opinions however on these points have not been implicitly received.

2097 B. iii. c. 26. The Dardani, Triballi, and Mœsi are mentioned in c. 29. The localities of the other tribes here mentioned are not known with any exactness.

2098 It retains the same name or that of Khimara, and gives its name to the Acroceraunian range. It was situate at the foot of the chain, which begins at this spot.

2099 “Aquæ regiæ.” Pouqueville suggests, without good reason, as Ansart thinks, that this spring was situate near the modern Drimodez or Dermadez.

2100 The place called Palæo-Kistes now stands on its site, and some remains of antiquity are to be seen.

2101 Now the Calama.

2102 Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Butrinto. It was said to have been founded by Helenus, the son of Priam. Pomponius Atticus had an estate here.

2103 This corresponds to the present Gulf of Arta, and was especially famous for being the scene of the battle of Actium. The city of Ambracia lay to the north of it. The present Arta is generally believed to occupy its site.

2104 Pouqueville has shown that Pliny is in error here, and he says that the Acheron is the modern Mavro Potamos; but according to Leake, the name of it is Gurla, or the river of Suli. It flows into the Port Fanari, formerly called Glykys Limen, or Sweet Harbour, from the freshness of the water there. The Acherusian Lake is probably the great marsh that lies below Kastri.

2105 It is now called the Arta, and gives name to the Gulf.

2106 The site of Anactoria or Anactorium, like that of its neighbour Actium, has been a subject of much dispute; but it is now pretty generally agreed that the former stood on the modern Cape Madonna, and Actium on the headland of La Punta.

2107 Pouqueville takes the ruins in the vicinity of Turco Palaka, eight miles from Margariti, to be those of Pandosia.

2108 This district probably occupied the present cantons of Vonitza and Xeromeros. It was called Curetis from the Curetes, who are said to have come from Ætolia and settled in Acarnania after their expulsion by Ætolus and his followers.

2109 The modern Vonitza is supposed to stand on its site.

2110 Leake places its site at Ai Vasili, where some ruins are to be seen.

2111 “The city of Victory.” Founded by Augustus on the spot where he had pitched his camp before the battle of Actium.

2112 Now called Capo Ducato or Capo tis Kiras. It is situate at the extremity of the island of Leucas, and opposite to Cephallenia. Sappho is said to have leapt from this rock on finding her love for Phaon unrequited: the story however is devoid of all historical truth.

2113 Now the island of Santa Maura. It was originally a peninsula, and Homer speaks of it as such; but the Corinthians cut a canal through the isthmus and converted it into an island. After the canal had been choked up for some time with sand, the Romans reopened it. It is at present dry in some parts.

2114 Probably from its town Nericus, mentioned by Homer.

2115 From the Greek word διορυκτὸς, a “foss” or “trench.”

2116 It probably had this name from the circumstance of the inhabitants of Nericus being removed thither by the Corinthians under Cypselus. The remains of Leucas, which was ravaged by the Romans B.C. 197, are still to be seen.

2117 Its remains are still to be seen in the valley of Kandili, south of Vonitza.

2118 Pouqueville says that very extensive and perfect ruins of this place are to be seen near the village of Lepenou.

2119 This famous city was deserted on the foundation of Nicopolis by Augustus. The place of its site has been a subject of much dispute, but it is considered most probable that Leake has rightly suggested that the ruins in the plain of Vlikha, at the village of Neokhori, are those of this city.

2120 Now the Aspropotamo.

2121 One of the group of the Echinades; small islands off the coast of Acarnania, which are mentioned by Pliny, in C. 19 of the present Book. It is now quite united to the mainland.

2122 Pouqueville says that Athamania occupied the localities now known as Djoumerca and Radovitch. It properly belonged to Epirus, and Pliny makes a mistake in considering it as a part of Ætolia.

2123 According to Pouqueville the ruins of Tymphæa are to be seen near the village of Paliouri, four miles from Janina.

2124 Ephyre, a town of the Agræi, is also mentioned by Strabo, but nothing whatever is known of it.

2125 The main body of the Perrhæbi were a people of Thessaly.

2126 Dolopia, now called Anovlachia, was properly reckoned part of Epirus.

2127 They are probably not the same people as the inhabitants of Atrax in Thessaly, which will be found mentioned in the 15th Chapter of this Book.

2128 The most famous city of Ætolia in its day, and the residence of Œneus, father of Meleager and Tydeus, and grandfather of Diomedes. The greater part of its inhabitants were removed by Augustus to his new city of Nicopolis. Leake supposes its ruins to be those seen by him at Kurt-Aga, to the east of the river Evenus.

2129 Now called the Fidaris.

2130 Pouqueville supposes the site of Macynia to have been that of the modern Koukio-Castron, and that of Molycria the present Manaloudi.

2131 Probably the present Varassova; there was a town called Chalcis, or Hypochalcis, at its foot. The present Kaki-Skala was probably the mountain of Taphiassus.

2132 Opposite the Promontory of Rhium, at the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf. It is now called the Castle of Roumelia, or the Punta of the Dardanelles of Roum Ili.

2133 Leake and Dodwell make it a mile and a half.

2134 Or Rhium. It is now called the Castle of the Morea.

2135 The modern Enebatché or Lepanto; whence the Corinthian Gulf takes its modern name.

2136 Proschium was built at a later period on the site of Pylene. Its site appears to be unknown. The modern Kyra-tis-Irinis is thought to occupy the site of Pleuron.

2137 Leake supposes some ruins between Kurt-aga, the site of Chalcedon, and the east end of the Lagoon of Missolonghi, to be the remains of Halicyrna.

2138 Leake supposes it to be identical with the high mountain now called Kelberini. Others again identify it with Gribovo.

2139 Pliny erroneously places this mountain in Acarnania. It was a range of Ætolia, now called Zygos.

2140 Perhaps the modern Djourmerca.

2141 Either the present Plocopari, or perhaps, more probably, Viena.

2142 A part of Mount Taphiassus. It is mentioned only by Pliny.

2143 They are supposed to have inhabited the modern districts of Malandrino and Salone. They were called “Ozolæ” or ‘strong-smelling,’ either from the undressed skins worn by them, or from the quantities of asphodel that grew in their country; or else from the vapours thrown off by the mineral springs in those parts.

2144 Pouqueville imagines its ruins to be those seen about two leagues from the modern Galaxidi.

2145 Lapie marks this in his map as the modern port of Ianakhi.

2146 So called from the ancient town of Crissa, which stood on it. It is the same as the modern Gulf of Salona.

2147 Or Eupalium. Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of Marathia, opposite the islands of Trazonia, where some ruins still exist.

2148 Pausanias makes this town to be the same with the Homeric Crissa, but Strabo distinguishes the two places, and his opinion is now generally followed; Cirrha being thought to have been built at the head of the Crissæan gulf, as the port of Crissa. Its ruins are thought to be those which bear the modern name of Magula.

2149 Or Chalæum. Pliny erroneously calls it a town of Phocis, it being on the coast of the Locri Ozolæ. He is wrong also in placing it seven miles from Delphi, and not improbably confounded it with Cirrha. Leake suggests that its site was the present Larnaki.

2150 The modern village of Kastri stands on part of the site of ancient Delphi. Its ruins have been explored by Chandler, Leake, and Ulrichs.

2151 The two highest summits of the range of Parnassus in the vicinity of Delphi were Tithorea, now Velitza, to the N.W., and Lycorea, now Liakura, to the N.E. Its rocks above Delphi were called the Phædriades or “Resplendent.”

2152 The famed Castalian spring is now called the Fountain of St. John, from the chapel of that saint which stands close to its source.

2153 Now the Mavro-Potamo.

2154 Its ruins are still to be seen about three leagues from Kastri.

2155 Or Crisso. It was situate inland to the S.W. of Delphi. Its ruins are to be seen at a short distance from the modern village of Chryso.

2156 It is supposed that the few ruins seen near the modern Aspra Spitia are those of this place. It was famous for its hellebore, which was extensively used for the cure of madness. There were two other places of the same name.

2157 The people of Bulis, near the Crissæan Gulf. Its ruins are situate at a short distance from the monastery of Dobé.

2158 Ansart suggests that this was the present port of Agio-Sideri or Djesphina.

2159 It occupied the site of the modern Salona; the walls of its ancient Acropolis are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the Locri Ozolæ.

2160 Pouqueville thinks that the ruins seen near Moulki are those of Tithrone, and that Tritea stood on the site of the present Turcochorion.

2161 Or Amphrysus, famous for the strength of its fortifications and its scarlet berries for dyeing. Some remains of it are to be seen at the modern village of Dhistomo.

2162 On the frontiers of Doris and Phocis. Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen midway between Kamares and Glamista. Daulis was also the name of an ancient town of Phocis, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern village of Dhavlia.

2163 Probably the present Palæo Kastro, at the Port de Dobrena or Polaca.

2164 Leake thinks that the Corsian Thebes, a port of Bœotia, is represented by the modern Khosia.

2165 Helicon is a range of mountains with several summits, the loftiest of which is now called Paleovuni. Helicon was a grove of the Muses, and the fountain of Aganippe was supposed to impart poetic inspiration to those who drank of it.

2166 See p. 288.

2167 From Apis, the son of Phoroneus, or Telchines, according to Pausanias. After the arrival of Pelops, it took from him its name of Peloponnesus, or the “Island of Pelops.”

2168 The Ionian from the north, and the Ægean, or rather, Myrtoan, Sea from the east.

2169 That part of Greece proper which lies to the north of the Isthmus.

2170 Now the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina.

2171 Lecheæ was the harbour of Corinth on the Corinthian, and Cenchreæ on the Saronic Gulf. The name of the latter is still preserved in the modern appellation Kechries, which is given to its ruins.

2172 Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, king of Asia.

2173 Caius Caligula, the Emperor.

2174 The Emperor Nero actually commenced the work, having opened the undertaking with great pomp, and cut away a portion of the earth with his own hands. He had advanced four stadia, when the work was interrupted by the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul.

2175 We cannot agree with Hardouin that “exitus” here means “death,” in allusion to the unfortunate end of all those who had made the attempt. The opinion of Spanheim seems rather deserving of support (though censured by Hardouin), that it merely means “the result” in each case; it being the fact, that in all the instances the contemplated undertaking was interrupted by some unforeseen event. Periander and Herodes Atticus also contemplated the formation of this channel.

2176 It is not known when it exchanged this name for that of Corinth; being called by both names in Homer. Scarcely any remains of it are now to be seen. The small town on its site is called Gortho, a corruption of its ancient name. The water of the famed spring of Pirene is now only used for washing clothes.

2177 Now Patras. There are few remains of the ancient city, which was one of the twelve cities of Achaia. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus.

2178 See C. 3 of the present Book, p. 275.

2179 Originally a district in the south of Thessaly had this name; but to distinguish it from that in the Peloponnesus, its people were called the Phthiotian Achæi.

2180 From the Greek word αἰγιαλὸς, “the sea-shore.”

2181 Situate on the coast, about five miles from the present Vostitza.

2182 In the interior. The modern Trikala stands on its site.

2183 Helice was the place of meeting of the Achæan league; when, in B.C. 373, together with Bura, it was swallowed up by an earthquake, and their sites were covered by the sea. Such of the people as escaped fled to the places mentioned above by Pliny. Pouqueville says that some remains of these places may still be seen emerging from the sea.

2184 The modern Basilico or Vasilika stands on its site.

2185 The places called Palæo-Kastro and Vostitza are supposed to occupy the sites of Ægira and Ægium. To the east of Vostitza considerable ruins are still to be seen.

2186 Supposed to be the present Artotina.

2187 Towns of Roman Argolis. The ruins of the former are supposed to be those at a spot still called Klenes, near the village of Curtesi. The remains of Hysiæ, on the road from Argos to Tegea, stand on a hill above the plain of Achladokampos.

2188 Now called Tekieh; fifteen stadia from Rhium.

2189 Or Pharæ; 150 stadia from Patræ.

2190 The modern Kato-Achaia.

2191 Its remains are to be seen near the modern village of Karavostasi. Pliny is mistaken probably in calling it a colony, as we know that it was placed under the authority of the colony of Patræ, which alone was allowed to enjoy the privilege of self-government.

2192 Pouqueville thinks that it was situate on the river now called the Verga. Leake supposes that the town of Hyrmine stood on the site of the present Kastro Tornese on the peninsula of Khlemutzi; but Boblaye and Curtius place it further north, at the modern harbour of Kunupeli, where there are some ancient ruins.

2193 Now Capo Papa.

2194 The locality of Cyllene is doubtful. Most writers place it at Glarentza but Pouqueville suggests Andravida or Andravilla, and Mannert places it near Clarenza. Chelinates or Chelonatas was probably the name originally of the whole peninsula of Khlemutzi, but the point here mentioned was most probably the modern Cape Tornese.

2195 It lay in the interior, south of Sicyonia, and north of Argos. Pouqueville found its ruins on the banks of the Asopus.

2196 Strabo says that this was the name of the most ancient town of Phliasia, and that the inhabitants afterwards deserted it for Phlius.

2197 Some small ruins of it are to be seen at the foot of the hill of Kaloskopi, its ancient Acropolis.

2198 By Olympiads, which were reckoned according to the order of celebration of the Olympic games: they were established in the year B.C. 776, and were celebrated every fourth year.

2199 It was destroyed in the year B.C. 572 by the Eleans, not a vestige of it being left. The Alpheus retains the name of Alfio.

2200 Or “the Fish,” from its peculiar shape. It is now called Katakolo.

2201 Probably situate in the valley between Elis and Messenia, which was so called. It is not elsewhere mentioned; and its ruins are thought to be those near the sea, on the right bank of the river Cyparissus. Leprion is again mentioned in c. x.

2202 Or Platamodes. Supposed to be the present Aja Kyriaki.

2203 This city survived through the middle ages, when it was called Arkadia. In 1525 it was destroyed by the Turks, and when rebuilt resumed nearly its ancient name as Cyparissia, by which it is now called. The bay or gulf is called the Gulf of Arkadia.

2204 Messenian Pylos probably stood on the site of the modern Erana; Pouqueville says however that it is still called Pilo, and other writers place it at Zonchio. It stood on the modern Bay of Navarino.

2205 Its site was at the spot called Palæo Kastro, near the modern town of Modon. The site of Messenian Helos, so called from its position in the marshes, τὸ ἕλος, is now unknown.

2206 Now Capo Gallo.

2207 It stood on the western side of the Messenian Gulf, which from it was called the Asinæan Gulf. Grisso, or, according to some, Iaratcha, occupies its site. Koroni however is most probably the spot where it stood, the inhabitants of ancient Corone having removed to it. Petalidhi stands on the site of Corone. A small portion of the Messenian Gulf was probably called the Coronean.

2208 Now Cape Matapan.

2209 Now the Pyrnatza.

2210 Its ruins, which are extensive, are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Mavromati. Ithome was the citadel of Messene, on a mountain of the same name, now called Vourcano.

2211 It is supposed that in ancient times it occupied the site of the more modern Samos or Samia in Triphylia. The modern Sareni is thought to occupy its site.

2212 Dorion or Dorium, the spot where, according to Homer, the Muses punished Thamyris with blindness, is supposed to have been situate on the modern plain of Sulima.

2213 Nothing seems to be known of this place; but it is not improbable that it gave its name to the place so called in Sicily, originally a Messenian colony.

2214 Or Tænarus, afterwards called Cænopolis. The present town of Kisternes, or Kimaros, occupies its site.

2215 Its site is generally placed at Sklavokhori, six miles from Sparta; but Leake supposes it to have been situate on the hill called Aghia Kyriaki, between that place and Sparta.

2216 Or Pharis. The present Chitries occupies its site.

2217 Or Leuctrum, on the river Pamisus, now called Levtros. It must not be confounded with the town in Bœotia where the Thebans defeated the Spartans, B.C. 371.

2218 Or Lacedæmon. Its site is occupied by the modern villages of Magula and Psykhiko. The principal modern town in the vicinity is Mistra.

2219 Or Therapnæ, on the left bank of the Eurotas. Some ruins of it are still to be seen.

2220 Considerable ruins of it are still to be seen to the N.E. of the modern town of Skarhamula.

2221 Authors are not agreed as to the site of this town and that of Anthea or Anthene.

2222 Memorable for the pitched battle between 300 Argives and 300 Spartans,—Othryades being the sole survivor of the Spartans, and Alcenor and Chromius of the Argives.

2223 By Homer called Enope.

2224 Pente Dactylon, or Pente Dactyli, the “Five Fingers,” is the present name of the range of Taygetus. Its principal summits are now St. Elias and Paixamadhi. The river Eurotas is now called Iris and Niris in its upper and middle course, and Basili-potamo from the Spartan plain to the sea.

2225 Ægila, according to Leake, occupied the site of the present Scutari; if so, this gulf was probably the Gulf of Scutari. Psamathus was near the point of Tænarum.

2226 Or Gythium, near the mouth of the Eurotas. It was famous for its cheeses. The ruins are called Paleopoli, a little to the north of Marathonisi.

2227 Now Capo Santo Angelo.

2228 Now Capo Skillo.

2229 Or Bœæ. Its ruins are to be seen at the head of the Gulf of Vatika.

2230 It stood on the site of the place called Palæ-Emvasia, above Monembasia.

2231 Its site is the modern Porto Kari, according to Ansart.

2232 Leake places Cyphanta either at Cyparissi, or farther north, at Lenidhi. Ansart makes it the modern Porto Botte, or Stilo.

2233 Now the Banitza. The Erasinus is the modern Kephalari.

2234 So called from its breed of horses. It is now also called Argos; three leagues from Napoli di Romania.

2235 Its site is now called Milos. In the marshes in its vicinity Hercules was said to have killed the Lernæan Hydra.

2236 Karvata is the name of the place on its site. Its ruins are numerous, and of great magnificence.

2237 Its ruins are of the most interesting nature, presenting enormous masses of stone, of Cyclopian architecture. The spot is at the present day called Palæ-Nauplia.

2238 It must not be confounded with the place in Arcadia, where Epaminondas fell. Its site appears to be unknown.

2239 Or Apesas, in the territory of Cleonæ, now called Fuka. Artemius is probably the present Malvouni, or Malcyo.

2240 A river of the same name rose in this mountain; its identity is unknown.

2241 So called from Niobe, the sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. The spring of Amymone ran into the lake of Lerna.

2242 Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Castri: they are very extensive.

2243 The modern Dhamala occupies the site of Trœzen.

2244 The identity of this Coryphasium seems to be unascertained. There was a promontory of that name in Messenia; but it cannot be the place here spoken of.

2245 It is supposed that Pliny here alludes to Argos Hippium, which he has previously mentioned; but only in connection with the rivers Inachus and Erasinus, and not as included in the list of the towns of Argolis. The origin of the term “Dipsian” is probably unknown. It could hardly allude to drought, as Argos was abundantly supplied with water. But see B. vii. c. 57.

2246 Ansart says that this is the modern Porto Estremo, at the mouth of the Saronic Gulf.

2247 Hesychius says that oaks were called σαρωνιδὲς in the language of ancient Greece. This gulf is now called the Gulf of Egina, or of Athens.

2248 He was worshipped here under the form of a serpent; and his temple, five miles from Epidaurus, was resorted to by patients from all parts of Greece for the cure of their diseases. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen, and those of the theatre at Epidaurus are very extensive. The village of Pidharvo stands in the midst of the ruins.

2249 The modern Capo Franco.

2250 Lapie takes Anthedus, or Anthedon, to be the place now called Porto d’Athene.

2251 This appears to have been a port of Corinth, on a promontory of the same name, meaning, probably from its shape, the “Bull’s Head Point.”

2252 Called the ‘Posideium’; in its vicinity the games were celebrated. The Isthmian Sanctuary was especially famous as a place of refuge.

2253 From δρυμωδὴς, “woody,” it being filled with groves and forests.

2254 Now called the Khan of Tripotamo.

2255 Now called Paleopoli. Here Epaminondas fell, fighting against the Spartans, B.C. 362.

2256 In the N.E. of Arcadia. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern Chionia. It was in the vicinity of the lake of the same name, the scene of one of the labours of Hercules.

2257 An important city: the modern Piali marks its site.

2258 Built upon the ruins of the ancient Mantinea.

2259 An ancient town mentioned by Homer, N.W. of Mantinea. The modern Kalpaki stands on its site.

2260 Or Pheneus, on the N.W. of Arcadia. Phonia stands on its site.

2261 Near Tegea; said to have been the birth-place of Evander. On the foundation of Megalopolis, it was nearly deserted, but was restored by Antoninus Pius. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern village of Thana, according to Ansart.

2262 It being said to have been so called in compliment to Evander, a native, as above stated, of Palantium.

2263 Founded by the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, near the frontiers of Messenia. The ruins of its theatre, once the largest in Greece, are the only remains of it now to be seen, near the modern village of Sinano.

2264 It contained a famous temple of Æsculapius. Its ruins are to be seen near the village of Atzikolo. The exact site of Bucolion, which was near Megalopolis, is probably unknown, though Ansart says that the spot is called Troupiais. Of Carnion nothing is known.

2265 The town of Parrhasia, which is mentioned by Homer, seems to have given name to the Parrhasian district. Leake thinks it to be the same as Lycosura.

2266 On the river Ladon: its ruins are seen near the modern Vanena.

2267 In the west of Arcadia, on the river Alpheus.

2268 Or “Juno’s Town.” It was a place of great importance, situate on the lower Alpheus. Its remains are to be seen on a hill west of the village of Aianni, or St. John. They are very inconsiderable. Its wine was highly esteemed, and still maintains its ancient celebrity.

2269 Of Pylæ, Pallene, Agræ, and Epium, nothing appears to be known.

2270 Or Cynætha, in the north of Arcadia, upon the Aroanian mountains, beyond the natural boundaries of Arcadia. The modern village of Kalavryta occupies its site; but there are scarcely any traces of its remains.

2271 Or Lepreum, so called to distinguish it from Lepreum in Elis.

2272 Nothing seems to be known of this Parthenium. Alea lay between Orchomenus and Stymphalus. Its ruins have been discovered in the dark valley of Skotini, a mile to the N.E. of the village of Buyati.

2273 Its site has the modern name of Palæopyrgos. The sites of Enispe, mentioned by Homer, and Macistum, are unknown.

2274 Or Cleitor, a famous town of Arcadia. Its ruins are to be seen on the plain of Kalzana, or Katzanes. One of the rivulets that ran past it still retains the name of Clitora.

2275 Its ruins, few in number, but testifying its importance, are found near the modern village of Kleves, not far from Kurtesi. The Nemean games were celebrated in honour of Hercules in the grove of Nemea, between Cleonæ and Phlius.

2276 From the village of Bembina there, mentioned by Strabo, and on which Koutzomati probably now stands.

2277 Now called Olono. It received its name from the Centaur Pholus, accidentally slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules.

2278 The modern Zyria.

2279 Nomiai and Hellenitza are modern names given to this mountain.

2280 In the south of Arcadia. It is now called Roïnon.

2281 Or Artemisium, forming the boundary between Argolis and Arcadia. It is now called Turniki.

2282 The pass by this mountain from Argolis to Tegea is still called Partheni.

2283 Now called Zembi, according to Ansart.

2284 The town of Nonacris stood at its foot. The river Styx took its rise in these mountains.

2285 Now called the Landona.

2286 The town now called Fonia, already mentioned by Pliny. The waters of its marshes were discharged by a subterranean passage, said to have been made by Hercules.

2287 Now called the Dogana. The two principal heights of Mount Erymanthus are Olonos and Kalefoni.

2288 The people of Aliphira, a town of Arcadia, in the district of Cynura. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill of Nerovitza.

2289 The people of Abea, in Messenia.

2290 The people of Pyrgos, in Arcadia.

2291 The people of Paroræa, in Arcadia. Of the two next, nothing appears to be known.

2292 The inhabitants of Typaneæ, in Elis.

2293 The people of Thrius, in Elis, near Patræ.

2294 The people of Tritia, in Achaia, now Chalanthistra.

2295 Nero abolished the institutions of the Roman province of Achaia, which had been assigned to the Roman senate, and governed by a proconsul, granting it its liberty. Vespasian, however, again established the provincial government, and compelled the Greeks to pay a yearly tribute.

2296 Now Vostitza.

2297 See p. 281.

2298 From the Greek ἀκτὴ, “the sea-shore.”

2299 It still retains its ancient name.

2300 Or Pegæ. It lay on the borders of the Corinthian Gulf, being, as Pliny says, the utmost point of the Peloponnesus on that side, as Megara was on the Saronic Gulf. According to Kruse, Psato occupies its site, but according to Lapie, Alepochori. The former is most probably correct.

2301 On the Corinthian Gulf. Porto Ghermano occupies its site.

2302 On the Saronic Gulf, to the north of Cenchreæ. The present Porto Cocosi occupies its site.

2303 Now Leandra, according to Ansart.

2304 Or Crommyon. It was the chief place on the Saronic Gulf, between the Isthmus, properly so called, and Megara. Its ruins are thought to be those seen near the chapel of Saint Theodorus. It was said to have been the haunt of the wild boar killed by Theseus.

2305 So called from being the scene of the ravages of the robber Sciron. They are now called Kaki Scala.

2306 Famous as the principal seat of the worship of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Its remains are to be seen at the modern Lefsina.

2307 Pera Chora marks its site. It was a member of the Tetrapolis of Attica, and Probalinthos another.

2308 Ulrichs, the best authority, places the port of Phalerum at the east corner of the great Phaleric Bay, in the vicinity of Tripirghi, or the Three Towers. The three harbours of the Piræus are the present Phanari, Stratiotiki or Paschalimani, and Drako or Porto Leone.

2309 The Piræus was united to the city by two walls, called the “Long Walls,” forty stadia in length. The length of the Phaleric wall was thirty-five stadia.

2310 It is to be regretted that such was his opinion. He could have well spared space for a description of it.

2311 The city of Cephisia, still called Kivisia, was one of the twelve cities of Cecrops. The fountain of transparent water is still to be seen here.

2312 Or the “Nine Springs.” It was the only source of good water for drinking purposes in Athens. This spring is still called by its ancient name. Of Larine nothing seems to be known.

2313 This is thought to have been the ancient name of the mountain afterwards known as Pentelicus, so famous for its marble, now called Mendeli or Penteli.

2314 The northern or Greater Hymettus is now called Telo-Vuni, the southern or Lesser Mavro-Vuni.

2315 On the N.E. of Athens, now called the Hill of Saint George.

2316 Probably on the river of the same name.

2317 Now Capo Colonna.

2318 North of Sunium and the modern bay of Panorimo. Thoricus was one of the Demi of Attica.

2319 This was the name of two Demi, though probably one place. It lay on the east coast to the north of Thoricus. Its harbour was probably the modern Dhaskalio; and the town is placed by Leake at the ruins called Paleokastro, to the south of the village of Dardheza.

2320 On the east coast, between Prasiæ and Brauron.

2321 One of the twelve ancient cities of Cecrops, on the eastern coast. Its name is supposed to be preserved in those of the villages Vraona and Paleo Vraona.

2322 A Demus belonging to the tribe Æantis. It was famous for its temple of Nemesis, the goddess of retribution. The present Obrio Castro occupies its site.

2323 Memorable for the defeat of the Persians by the Athenians, B.C. 490. The site of the ancient town of Marathon is thought not to have been at the modern village of Marathon, but a place called Vrana, to the south of it.

2324 The eastern part of the Eleusinian plain was thus called, from the Demus of Thria. Its exact site is uncertain.

2325 Melite was a Demus of the tribe Cecropis, of Athens, west of the Inner Ceramicus.

2326 Now Oropo, on the eastern frontiers of Bœotia and Attica, near the Euripus. It originally belonged to the Bœotians.

2327 Its ruins are supposed to be those seen eight miles from Egripo. Lukisi has also been suggested.

2328 Its ruins are still to be seen on the S.W. slope of Mount Faga.

2329 On the S.E. slope of Mount Helicon. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Eremo or Rimokastro.

2330 Now Livadhia. The celebrated cave of Trophonius stood in its vicinity.

2331 Extensive remains of it are still to be seen; but the modern town of Theba or Stiva stands only on the site of its ancient Cadmea or citadel.

2332 To distinguish it from places of the same name in Egypt, Phthiotis, and Lucania.

2333 On the range of mountains of that name separating Bœotia from Megaris and Attica. The forest abounded in game, and the vicinity was a favourite scene of the poetic legends. Paleovuni is the highest summit of the Heliconian range. Leake fixes the Grove of the Muses at the present church of Saint Nicholas, at the foot of Mount Marandali, one of the summits of Helicon.

2334 These fountains or springs are very difficult to identify, but Hippocrene, or the “Horse-Spring” (said to have been produced by Pegasus striking the ground with his feet), was probably at the present Makariotissa; while Aganippe is the fountain that flows midway between Paleo-panaghia and Pyrgaki.

2335 This place was originally a member of the Bœotian confederacy, but joined the Athenians, though it did not become an Attic Demus. Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen at Myupoli. Ross thinks that it stood to the east of Ghyfto-kastro, while other writers are of opinion that it stood more to the west, near the modern village of Kundara.

2336 Razed to the ground by the Roman prætor Lucretius, for having espoused the cause of king Perseus. Its remains are seen about a mile from the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadæa.

2337 Memorable for the defeat of the Persians under Mardonius, B.C. 479.

2338 Distant twenty stadia from Orchomenus. Leake places it at the modern Izamali, Forchhammer at Avro-Kastro.

2339 Its site is uncertain. Leake supposes it to be at Paleokastro, between the north end of Lake Hylica and the foot of Mount Palea. Ulrichs places it at the south end of the lake.

2340 The modern Kakosia occupies its site.

2341 At the foot of Mount Cithæron. Leake places it eastward of Katzula, at the foot of the rocks there.

2342 Leake identifies it with the ruins on the torrent of Plataniki, below the mountain of Siamata. Pausanias says it was situate seven stadia beyond Teumessus, and at the foot of Hypatus, now Siamata.

2343 On Lake Copaïs. The modern village of Topolia occupies its site.

2344 The waters of the Cephisus here burst forth from their subterraneous channel.

2345 On Lake Copaïs. Its ruins are at a short distance to the south of the modern Kardhitza.

2346 South of Mount Helicon. Its principal remains are those of its theatre, a temple of Hera, and the agora or market-place.

2347 On the borders of Phocis; famous for the battles fought in its vicinity between the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 447, and between Philip of Macedon and the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 338, and that in which Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates B.C. 86. It stood on the site of the modern village of Kapurna.

2348 On the river Copaïs, at the foot of Mount Tilphusion.

2349 On the river of that name, and on the road from Thebes to Anthedon.

2350 Its site appears to be unknown.

2351 Enumerated by Homer with Aulis. Ancient critics have, without sufficient reason, identified it with Hysiæ.

2352 It was sacked by the Athenians, B.C. 413, and in ruins in the time of Pausanias.

2353 The modern Grimadha or Grimala occupies its site.

2354 The modern channel of Egripo.

2355 The place where the Grecian fleet assembled when about to sail for Troy. Leake says that its harbour is now called Vathy, evidently from the Greek βαθὺς, “wide.”

2356 So called from dwelling near Mount Cnemis.

2357 Its ruins are to be seen three miles from the modern Talanti.

2358 Now the Golfo di Talanti.

2359 On the Eubœan Sea, which here extended to the Corinthian Gulf. It was in ruins in the time of Strabo. Cynus was the chief sea-port of the Locri Opuntii. Its site is marked by a tower called Palæopyrgo, and some ruins to the south of the village of Livanates.

2360 The modern village of Lefti stands on its site, and there are some ruins to be seen.

2361 In C. iv. of this Book.

2362 Or Cnemides, a fortress built on the range of Mount Cnemis, near the modern Nikoraki.

2363 Ravaged by Philip of Macedon. Its ruins are near the modern village of Vogdhani.

2364 The Lower Larymna. Its ruins are seen between the modern Matzumadi and Martini.

2365 Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Andera.

2366 Between Daphnus and Cynus. Gell found its ruins on a hill near the sea-shore.

2367 Its ruins are to be seen three miles from those of Thronium.

2368 Now called the Gulf of Zeitoun. The people from whom it received its name were the Malienses.

2369 Its ruins are two leagues from the modern town of Zeitoun.

2370 Or Sperchia.

2371 Strabo says that it lay below the town of Pindus. It is perhaps the present Palæo Choria.

2372 Its ruins are placed by Leake near the modern Mariolates.

2373 Like Pindus, one of the four towns or Tetrapolis of Doris. Its site corresponds to the modern Gravia.

2374 He seems to think that the name Græcus is older than that of Hellen, in which he is supported by Apollodorus.

2375 So called from Echion, fabled to have sprung from the dragon’s teeth. Its site is marked by the modern village called Akhino. The Sperchius is now called the Ellada.

2376 This famous spot still retains its name. It is also called Bocca di Lupo.

2377 From τραχὺς, “narrow,” in allusion to the narrowness of the mountain passes. Brotier places it on the site of the modern Zeitoun, but he is probably in error.

2378 A peak of the range of Œta.

2379 The name of a town and small district of Phthiotis: it eventually gave its name to the whole of Greece, which by its inhabitants was called Hellas.

2380 Near the river Amphrysus. Leake places it at Kefalosi, at the extremity of Mount Othrys.

2381 The modern Zeitoun.

2382 Said to have been the city of Achilles.

2383 According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Cierium was identical with Arne. Leake places it at the modern Mataranga.

2384 So called from the people called Minyæ, who derived their name from Minyas, the father of Orchomenus. In the time of Strabo, this city, the capital of the Minyan empire, was in ruins. Its site is now called Seripu.

2385 Leake places its site on the left bank of the Peneius, opposite the village of Gunitza.

2386 The residence of Admetus, and in later times of the tyrants of Thessaly. The modern Valestina occupies its site.

2387 Spoken of in C. 17 of the present book.

2388 The ancient capital of the Pelasgi. It is now called Larissa, Larza, or Ienitchen.

2389 Leake places Gomphi on the heights now called Episkopi, on the left bank of the Bliuri.

2390 Its ruins are said to be seen about eight miles from the modern city of Volo.

2391 The city of Volo stands on its site. The Gulf is called the Bay of Volo.

2392 This is not strictly correct. Demetrias was founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes, about two or three miles to the west of Pagasa, the inhabitants of which were removed to that place. Its remains are to be seen, according to Leake, on the face of a maritime height called Goritza.

2393 Pharsalus, now Farsa or Fersala, in Thessaliotis. On its plain Pompey was defeated by Cæsar, B.C. 48.

2394 Or Cranon; said to have been anciently called Ephyre. Leake places its site at some ruins called Palea Larissa, distant two hours and twenty-seven minutes’ journey from Larissa. It was the residence of the powerful family of the Scopadæ.

2395 This range in Macedonia is now called Verria. Herodotus states that it was impassably for cold, and that beyond were the gardens of Midas, where roses grew spontaneously.

2396 The name of the eastern part of the great mountain chain extending west and east from the Promontory of Acroceraunia on the Adriatic to the Thermaic Gulf. It is now called by the Greeks Elymbo, and by the Turks Semavat-Evi, the “Abode of the Celestials.” A portion of this range was called Pierus; and Ossa, now Kissavo, the “ivy-clad,” was divided from Olympus on the N.W. by the Vale of Tempe. Othrys extended from the south of Mount Pindus, to the eastern coast and the Promontory between the Gulf of Pagasa and the northern point of Eubœa.

2397 Now called Plessedhi or Zagora; situate in the district of Magnesia in Thessaly, between lake Bœbeis and the Pagasæan Gulf.

2398 Now the Gouropotamo.

2399 Flowing into the Asopus near Thermopylæ.

2400 In Pieria. Supposed to be the modern Litokhoro.

2401 The modern Rajani.

2402 This lake received the rivers Onchestus, Amyrus, and others. It is now called Karla, from an adjoining village which has ceased to exist. The town of Bœbe was in its vicinity.

2403 Now the Salambria or Salamria.

2404 The jugerum was properly 240 feet long and 120 broad, but Pliny uses it here solely as a measure of length; corresponding probably to the Greek πλέθρον, 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet long. Tempe is the only channel through which the waters of the Thessalian plain flow into the sea.

2405 Il. B. ii. c. 262. He alludes to the poetical legend that the Orcus or Titaresius was a river of the infernal regions. Its waters were impregnated with an oily substance, whence probably originated the story of the unwillingness of the Peneus to mingle with it. It is now called the Elasonitiko or Xeraghi.

2406 Near Libethrum; said to be a favourite haunt of the Muses, whence their name “Libethrides.” It is near the modern Goritza.

2407 Leake places its site on the height between the southernmost houses of Volo and Vlakho-Makhala. No remains of it are to be seen.

2408 Ansart says that on its site stands the modern Korakai Pyrgos.

2409 Near Neokhori, and called Eleutherokhori.

2410 Now Kortos, near Argalisti, according to Ansart.

2411 Now Haghios Georgios, or the Promontory of St. George.

2412 At the foot of Mount Pelion. Leake places it at some ruins near a small port called Tamukhari. The chestnut tree derived its Greek and modern name from this place, in the vicinity of which it still abounds.

2413 Probably near the village of Hagia Eutimia, according to Ansart.

2414 Now Trikeri.

2415 Melibœa was near the modern Mintzeles, and Rhizus near Pesi Dendra, according to Ansart.

2416 Ansart says, in the vicinity of the modern Conomio.

2417 Situate at the foot of Mount Homole, between Tempe and the village of Karitza. Leake thinks that the Convent of St. Demetrius, on the lower part of Mount Kissavo, stands on its site.

2418 Now Tournovo, according to Ansart.

2419 Now called Democo, according to Ansart.

2420 Between the Titaresius and the Peneus. The modern village of Tatari stands on its site.

2421 Probably the place of the same name mentioned in the last Chapter.

2422 Probably the same as Acharræ on the river Pamisus, mentioned by Livy, B. xxxii. c. 13.

2423 On the Dotian Plain, mentioned by Hesiod, and probably the same place that Pindar calls Lacereia.

2424 The birth-place of Protesilaüs, the first victim of the Trojan war.

2425 Nothing is known of this place. The word “porro” appears instead of it in some editions.

2426 Philip, the Conqueror of Greece, and Alexander, the Conqueror of Asia.

2427 The original Emathia, as mentioned by Homer, is coupled with Pieria as lying between the Hellenic cities of Thessaly and Pæonia, and Thrace.

2428 A tribe of the south-west of Mœsia, and extending over a part of Illyricum. According to Strabo, they were a wild race, of filthy habits, living in caves under dunghills, but fond of music.

2429 A people of Mœsia, mentioned in C. 29 of the last Book.

2430 Supposed by some writers to be the same place as Edessa. Ansart says it is the spot now known as Moglena.

2431 Now Verria in Roumelia. St. Paul and Silas withdrew to this place from Thessalonica. The remains are very considerable.

2432 Described by Livy as of great strength. It occupied the site of the modern Stagus.

2433 Surnamed Lyncestis; the chief town of Upper Macedonia. It must have stood not far from the modern town of Felurina.

2434 Now the Platamona.

2435 Now Kitron. The Romans usually called it Citron or Citrus.

2436 In the inmost recess of the Thermaic Gulf. Leake supposes it to have occupied the site of the present Palea Khora, near Kapsokhori.

2437 Now the Vistritza, by the Turks called Inje-Karra. Cæsar calls it the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly.

2438 The people apparently of Aloros just mentioned.

2439 Vallæ and Phylacæ appear to have been two towns of Pieria.

2440 The people of Cyrrhus; probably on the site of the present Vistritza. Leake however makes a place called Paleokastro to occupy its site. Tyrissæ was probably in its vicinity.

2441 Now Alaklisi, upon a lake formed by the Lydias. Philip made it the capital of Macedonia, and it was the birth-place of Alexander the Great. It was made a Roman colony under the name of Julia Augusta Pella.

2442 Its ruins are still called Stoli.

2443 There were two places of this name in Macedonia; one called Antigonia Psaphara in Chalcidice, and the other in Pæonia.

2444 Between Idomene and the plains of Pella. As Pliny here says, it was a different place from Europus of Almopia, by which the Rhœdias flows. Of the following places nothing seems to be known.

2445 Coupled by Herodotus with Pella. Eordæa seems to have been the name of the district on the river Eordaicus, identified with the modern Devol.

2446 They dwelt in the vicinity of Mount Scomium. The river Axius is the modern Vardhari.

2447 Or Thrace.

2448 People of Paroræa in Thrace.

2449 The people probably of Eordæa, already mentioned.

2450 Leake thinks that Almopia was the name of the district now called Moglena.

2451 The Mygdones were a Thracian people in the east of Macedonia, on the Thermaic Gulf.

2452 The people of Arethusa, a town of Bisaltia in Macedonia, in the pass of Aulon. Euripides, the tragic poet, was buried here.

2453 A town of Mygdonia.

2454 The people of Idomene, a town about twelve miles from the pass of Stena, now Demirkapi, or the ‘Iron Gate,’ on the river Vardhari.

2455 Their district of Doberus is supposed to have been near the modern Doghiran.

2456 It has been suggested that Garescus stood on the same site as the modern Nurocopo. Many of these peoples are now entirely unknown.

2457 The people of Lyncestis, in Macedonia, of Illyrian origin and on the frontiers of Illyria. Lyncus was the ancient capital, Heraclæa the more modern one.

2458 Probably the inhabitants of the slopes of Mount Othrys.

2459 Amantia was properly in Illyria, to the south of the river Aoüs. Leake places it at Nivitza.

2460 A people of the north of Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia. They were said to have derived their name from Orestes, who, after the murder of his mother, founded in their territory the town of Argos Oresticum.

2461 A Greek city of Illyria. Dr. Holland discovered its remains at Graditza on the Aoüs or Viosa.

2462 The bulwark of the Macedonian maritime frontier to the south. Leake discovered its site near the modern Malathria.

2463 On the right bank of the river Strymon in Thracian Macedonia. It stood on the site of the modern Zervokhori.

2464 A people of Epirus on the borders of Thessaly.

2465 In Mygdonia, at the mouth of the Axius—King Perseus put all its male inhabitants to death. Its site was at or near the modern Kulakia.

2466 Now Saloniki. Its original name was Thermæ, but it was first made an important city by Cassander, B.C. 315, who gave it its new name in honour of his wife, the sister of Alexander the Great: St. Paul visited it about A.D. 53, and two years after addressed from Corinth two Epistles to his converts in the city.

2467 Polybius says, in Strabo, B. vii., 267 miles.

2468 As already mentioned, Thermæ became merged in Thessalonica, when refounded by Cassander under that name.

2469 Now the Gulf of Saloniki.

2470 This is probably an error. Pydna, already mentioned, lay far inland in the district of Pieria.

2471 On the peninsula of Pallene. Its male inhabitants were put to death by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war.

2472 Now Capo Paliuri, the extreme point of the Isthmus of Pallene.

2473 The most westerly of the three peninsulas of Chalcidice. Phlegra is generally understood to have been its former name.

2474 Perhaps the same as Nyssa, between the rivers Nestus or Mestus, and Strymon.

2475 Its ruins are now called Pinaka. It was a colony of the Corinthians but refounded by Cassander, King Philip having previously destroyed the city.

2476 South-east of Thessalonica, and north of Chalcidice. It was given by King Philip to the Olynthians.

2477 Near Mount Athos.

2478 Now Molivo, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, part of which thence took its name.

2479 The name of a promontory at the extremity of the peninsula of Sithonia, in Chalcidice. It seems to correspond with the modern Capo Kartali.

2480 In the district of Chalcidice, on the S.W. of the peninsula of Sithonia.

2481 On the east of the peninsula of Sithonia. It gave its name to the Sinus Singiticus or Singitic Gulf.

2482 Now Monte Santo, at the end of the long peninsula running out from Chalcidice.

2483 This is a mistake. It is only forty miles in length. From Lieut. Smith (Journal of Royal Geogr. Soc. vol. vii. p. 65) we learn that its average breadth is about four miles; consequently Pliny’s statement as to its circumference must be greatly exaggerated. Juvenal, Sat. x. l. 174, mentions the story of the canal as a specimen of Greek falsehood; but distinct traces have survived, to be seen by modern travellers, all the way from the Gulf of Monte Santo to the Bay of Erso in the Gulf of Contessa, except about 200 yards in the middle, which has been probably filled up.

2484 Or Acrothoüm. Pliny, with Strabo and Mela, errs in thinking that it stood on the mountain. It stood on the peninsula only, probably on the site of the modern Lavra.

2485 Or the ‘Heaven City,’ from its elevated position. It was founded by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander, king of Macedon.

2486 Probably on the west side of the peninsula, south of Thyssus.

2487 Or “long-lived.”

2488 Now Erisso; on the east side of the Isthmus, about a mile and a half from the canal of Xerxes. There are ruins here of a large mole.

2489 A little to the north of the Isthmus now called Stavro. It was the birth-place of Aristotle the philosopher, commonly called the Stagirite, and was, in consequence, restored by Philip, by whom it had been destroyed; or, as Pliny says in B. vii. c. 30, by Alexander the Great.

2490 The name of the central one of the three peninsulas projecting from Chalcidice. The poets use the word Sithonius frequently as signifying ‘Thracian.’

2491 Possibly not the same as the Heraclea Sintica previously mentioned.

2492 Now called Pollina, south of Lake Bolbe, on the road from Thessalonica to Amphipolis.

2493 Sacred to Poseidon or Neptune. Now Capo Stavros in Thessaly, the west front of the Gulf of Pagasa, if indeed this is the place here meant.

2494 On the left or eastern bank of the river Strymon, which flowed round it, whence its name Amphi-polis, “round the city.” Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni or “Newtown.” A few remains are still to be seen. The bay at the mouth of the Strymon, now Struma or Kara-Sou, is called the Gulf of Orphano.

2495 A Thracian people, extending from the river Strymon on the east to Crestonica on the west.

2496 In Mount Scomius namely, one of the Hæmus or Balkan range.

2497 Under Alexander the Great. On his death his empire was torn in pieces by the contentions of his generals.

2498 In allusion to the legendary accounts of the Indian expeditions of Bacchus and Hercules.

2499 On the conquest of Perseus. Plutarch says that these seventy cities were pillaged in one and the same hour. They were thus punished for their support of Perseus.

2500 Alexander the Great and Paulus Æmilius.

2501 Or præfectures, as the Romans called them.

2502 In the last Chapter.

2503 An extensive tribe occupying the country about the rivers Axius, Strymon, and Nestus or Mestus.

2504 This river is now called the Mesto or Kara-Sou.

2505 A range between the Strymon and the Nestus, now the Pangea or Despoto-Dagh.

2506 Probably a canton or division of the Bessi.

2507 The most powerful people of Thrace; dwelling on both sides of the Artiscus, and on the plain of the Hebrus.

2508 Now the Maritza. It rises near the point where Mount Scomius joins Mount Rhodope. The localities of most of the tribes here named are unknown.

2509 The name of this people is often used by the poets to express the whole of Thrace. The district of Edonis, on the left bank of the Strymon, properly extended from Lake Cercinitis as far east as the river Nestus.

2510 Or “Trouble City,” also called Eumolpias.

2511 Or “Philip’s City,” founded by Philip of Macedon; still called Philippopoli.

2512 Because it stood on a hill with three summits. Under the Roman empire it was the capital of the province of Thracia.

2513 On account probably of the winding nature of the roads; as the height of the Balkan range in no part exceeds 3000 feet. With Theopompus probably originated the erroneous notion among the ancients as to its exceeding height.

2514 The people of Mœsia. The Aorsi and Getæ are again mentioned in C. 25 of this Book.

2515 The inhabitants of the present Bulgaria, it is supposed.

2516 Following the account which represent him as a king of the Cicones, and dwelling in the vicinity of Mount Rhodope. The Sithonii here mentioned dwelt about the mouth of the Ister, or Danube, and were a different people from those of Sithonia, in Chalcidice, referred to in a previous note.

2517 The Sea of Marmora.

2518 It is difficult to conceive which place of this name is here alluded to, as there seem to have been four places on this coast so called, and all mentioned by Pliny in the present Book.

2519 Called Æsyma by Homer; between the rivers Strymon and Nestus.

2520 Now called Kavallo, on the Strymonic Gulf. The site of Datos appears to be unknown.

2521 Now called Filiba, or Felibejik, on a height of Mount Pangæus, on the river Gangites, between the Nestus and the Strymon. It was founded by Philip, on the site of the ancient town of Crenides, in the vicinity of the gold mines. Here Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, B.C. 42; and here the Apostle Paul first preached the Gospel in Europe, A.D. 53. See Acts xvi. 12.

2522 Its site seems unknown, but it is evidently a different place from that mentioned in the last Chapter.

2523 Also called Mestus.

2524 Sintica, previously mentioned.

2525 Now Aco Mamas, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf. It was the most important Greek city on the coast of Macedon. It was taken and destroyed by Philip, B.C. 347, and its inhabitants sold as slaves. Mecyberna, already mentioned, was used as its sea-port.

2526 On the coast, and east of the river Nestus. Its people were proverbial for their stupidity, though it produced the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras, and Anaxarchus. No traces of its site are to be found.

2527 Now called the Lagos Buru. The name of the Bistones is sometimes used by the poets for that of the Thracians in general.

2528 Or mares rather. Diomedes was the son of Ares, or Mars, and king of the Bistones. He was slain by Hercules.

2529 By some identified with the modern Curnu, by others with Bauron.

2530 Or Ismarus, at the foot of Mount Ismarus.

2531 Now Marogna.

2532 A promontory opposite the island of Samothrace.

2533 A town on a promontory of the same name, said to have been frequented by Orpheus.

2534 The Plain of Doriscus is now called the Plain of Romigik. Parisot suggests the true reading here to be 100,000, or, as some MSS. have it, 120,000, there being nothing remarkable in a plain containing 10,000 men. Pliny however does not mention it as being remarkable, but merely suggests that the method used by Xerxes here for numbering his host is worthy of attention.

2535 Now the Maritza. At its mouth it divides into two branches, the eastern forming the port of Stentor.

2536 Still called Enos.

2537 A son of Priam and Hecuba, murdered by Polymnestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to obtain his treasures. See the Æneid, B. iii.

2538 From the Greek, μάκρον τεῖχος.

2539 Now the Gulf of Enos.

2540 Now Ipsala, or Chapsylar, near Keshan.

2541 Now Rodosto, or Rodostshig, on the coast of the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora.

2542 Now called the Peninsula of the Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli. The wall was built to protect it from incursions from the mainland.

2543 He here skips nearly five degrees of latitude, and at once proceeds to the northern parts of Thrace, at the mouth of the Danube, and moves to the south.

2544 Or, the “city of the Ister,” at the south of Lake Halmyris, on the Euxine. Its site is not exactly known; but by some it is supposed to have been the same with that of the modern Kostendsje.

2545 Now Temesvar, or Jegni Pangola, the capital of Scythia Minor. It was said to have been so called from the Greek τέμνω, “to cut,” because Medea here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus. It is famous as the place of Ovid’s banishment; and here he wrote his ‘Tristia’ and his ‘Pontic Epistles.’

2546 Usually identified with the modern Collat, or Collati.

2547 Its site does not appear to be known, nor yet those of many of the towns here mentioned.

2548 This story no doubt arose from the similarity of its name to γέρανος, “a crane;” the cranes and the Pigmies, according to the poets, being in a state of continual warfare.

2549 Supposed to be the present Varna.

2550 Now called Daphne-Soui, according to D’Anville.

2551 Said to have been built by Aristæus, son of Apollo.

2552 Now Missivri.

2553 Or Anchiale, now Akiali.

2554 Now Sizeboli, famous for its temple of Apollo, with his statue, thirty cubits in height, which Lucullus carried to Rome. In later times it was called Sozopolis.

2555 Now Tiniada.

2556 The present Midjeh, according to D’Anville.

2557 Afterwards called Zagora, which name it still bears.

2558 Or Straits of Constantinople.

2559 Between Galata and Fanar, according to Brotier.

2560 Or Golden Horn; still known by that name.

2561 The site of the present Constantinople.

2562 These rivers do not appear to have been identified.

2563 The present Silivri occupies its site.

2564 An important town of Thrace. Eski Erckli stands on its site.

2565 Now Vizia, or Viza.

2566 He alludes to the poetical story of Tereus, king of Thrace, Progne, and Philomela. Aldrovandus suggests that the real cause of the absence of the swallow is the great prevalence here of northern winds, to which they have an aversion.

2567 So called probably from the Thracian tribe of the Cænici, or Cæni.

2568 Now called Erkene, a tributary of the Hebrus.

2569 All that is known of it is, that it is mentioned as a fortress on the Propontis.

2570 Hexamila now occupies its site.

2571 The isthmus or neck of the Peninsula of Gallipoli, or the Dardanelles.

2572 That of Corinth. They are both about five miles wide at the narrowest part.

2573 Now Cardia, or Caridia. It was the birth-place of king Eumenes.

2574 From καρδία, in consequence of its supposed resemblance to a heart.

2575 Lysimachus destroyed Cardia, and, building Lysimachia, peopled it with the inhabitants.

2576 Mannert identities it with the ancient Ægos and the modern Galata.

2577 More generally called Ægospotamos, the “Goat River,” upon which the town of Ægos stood. It was here that Lysander defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405, which put an end to the Peloponnesian war.

2578 Antoninus, in his Itinerary, makes this distance twenty-six miles.

2579 B. ii. c. 92. The present Straits of Gallipoli.

2580 Now Gallipoli, a place of considerable commercial importance.

2581 Now Ialova; famous in Grecian poetry, with Abydos, for the loves of Hero and Leander.

2582 Now Lamsaki.

2583 The village of Aidos, or Avido, probably marks its site. To the north, Xerxes passed over to Sestos on his bridge of boats, B.C. 480.

2584 Now Capo Helles.

2585 Now Jeni-Hisari, the N.W. promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the Grecian camp during the Trojan war.

2586 Meaning the “Bitch’s tomb,” the fable being that Hecuba, in her old age, was changed into that animal. It was near the town of Madytus.

2587 Meaning that their fleet was anchored off here during the Trojan war.

2588 A magnificent temple was erected near his tomb at Eleus, where he also had a sacred grove. It was greatly enriched by the votive offerings of Greek travellers. According to D’Anville, its site lay to the south of Mastusia.

2589 Now called Kilidbahr. Near this place the Spartans were defeated by the Athenians, who erected a trophy near the tomb of Hecuba.

2590 In the present Chapter; where he says that the distance from Byzantium to Dyrrhachium is 711 miles. See p. 305.

2591 Αἲξ, “a goat.” Other authors give other derivations for the name of Ægean,—from the town of Ægæ in Eubœa, or from Ægeus, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into it; or from Ægæa, a queen of the Amazons, who perished there; or from Ægæon, a god of the sea; or from the Greek αἰγὶς, “a squall,” on account of its storms.

2592 See c. 5 of this Book.

2593 Both places in Eubœa, mentioned in c. 21 of this Book.

2594 Now Corfu. Of its city of Corcyra only a few ruins now exist.

2595 There are still some remains of it near the village called Cassopo.

2596 Now Fano, or Merlere.

2597 Now Paxo and Antipaxo.

2598 On the contrary, they lie at the other end of the isle of Corcyra. Some of them are mere rocks, and cannot be distinguished by their ancient names. The present names of four are Sametraki, Diaplo, Boaia, and the Isle of Ulysses.

2599 Now Capo Drasti.

2600 Now Capo Levkimo. The islands are those of Santo Niccolo.

2601 Or Islands of the Teleboans.

2602 These three seem to be those now called Magnisi, Kalamota, and Kastus. These lie facing the promontory of Leucadia, the others opposite Ætolia.

2603 Opposite Acarnania: by the Venetians they were called the Islands of Kurtzolari. Some of them are cultivated, others again are mere rocks.

2604 Now called Cephallenia.

2605 Now Zante.

2606 Now Thiaki, or Cefalogna Piccola—Little Cephallenia.

2607 The general opinion is, that Strabo is right in identifying this island with one of the Echinades; but it seems impossible now to say which of them was so called.

2608 Sometimes confounded with Cephallenia; but, according to Virgil and Mela, as well as Pliny, they were different islands.

2609 Crocylæa was a town of Acarnania, referred to by Homer; and there was a district of Ithaca called Crocylcium. Pliny is probably in error in mentioning Crocyle as an island.

2610 Or the “Black Island;” probably from its thick foliage.

2611 Pale, Cranii, and Proni.

2612 So called from its fir-trees. It now has the name of Scopo.

2613 Now Monte Stefano.

2614 See c. 6 of this Book.

2615 Supposed by some writers to be the same with the rocky isle now called Dyscallio. Though mentioned by Homer, its existence was disputed by many of the ancient commentators.

2616 The modern Strivali and Stamphane.

2617 The present Guardiania, according to Lapie.

2618 According to Ansart, these were Prote, now Prodano, and Sphagia, formerly Sphacteria, before Pylos, now called Zonchio, or Old Navarino; the third being perhaps the isle of Bechli, in the Bay of Navarino.

2619 Now called Sapienza, Santa Maria, and Cabrera.

2620 Venetico and Formignes are the names of two of them.

2621 Now Servi.

2622 The modern Cerigo.

2623 It is much further from the Cape of Malea or Santo Angelo than the distance here mentioned. It derived its name of Porphyris from the purple fishery established here by the Phœnicians.

2624 The modern Isle of Port Tolon. Irine is the present Hipsyli according to Leake, who also identifies Ephyre with Spetzia.

2625 At the south of Argolis.

2626 The modern Dhoko, according to Leake. Some authorities think that Tiparenus, and not Ephyre, is the modern Spetzia.

2627 Leake thinks that Colonis and Hydreia, now called Hydra, were the same island; but Kiepert thinks it the same as the small island to the south of Spetzia.

2628 Now Poros.

2629 These are the islands now called Moni Jorench, Kophinidia, and San Giorgio d’Arbora. It is perhaps impossible to identify them, except that Belbina is generally supposed to be the island of San Giorgio.

2630 Now Kyra.

2631 The modern Angistri.

2632 Which name, or Eghina, it still retains.

2633 See c. 9 of this Book.

2634 Probably the modern Laoussa, one of this group.

2635 By Brotier said to be the modern Pentenesia. The other islands here mentioned seem not to have been identified.

2636 Now Cerigotto.

2637 Dalechamps suggests Hesperus.

2638 The island “of the Blessed.”

2639 Now Capo Salomon.

2640 From the Greek κριοῦ μέτωπον, “the ram’s forehead”; now called Capo Crio.

2641 Also called Elæa. Pococke speaks of it as a promontory called Chaule-burnau.

2642 Hardouin calls it Chisamo.

2643 The modern Khania. The quince derived its Latin name, “Malum Cydonium,” from this district, to which it was indigenous. From its Latin name it was called melicotone by the writers of the Elizabethan period.

2644 Now Minolo, according to Hardouin.

2645 The port of Apteron, or Aptera, which Mr. Pashley supposes to be denoted by the ruins of Palæokastro; he also thinks that its port was at or near the modern Kalyres.

2646 Now La Suda, according to Hardouin, who says that Rhithymna is called Retimo; Panormus, Panormo; and Cytæum, Setia.

2647 Supposed by Ansart to have stood in the vicinity of the modern city of Candia.

2648 Strabo says that it stood on the narrowest part of the island, opposite Minoa. Vestiges of it have been found at the Kastéle of Hierapetra. Its foundation was ascribed to the Corybantes.

2649 Now Lionda.

2650 Next to Cnossus in splendour and importance. Mr. Pashley places its site near the modern Haghius Dheka, the place of the martyrdom of the ten Saints, according to tradition, in the Decian persecution.

2651 It has been remarked, that Pliny is mistaken here if he intends to enumerate Cnossus among the towns of the interior of Crete. The only remains of this capital of Crete, situate on the north of the island, are those seen at Makro-Teikho, or the “Long Walls,” so called from the masses of Roman brick-work there seen.

2652 Though an inland town, it probably stood in the vicinity of the headland or promontory of the same name, which is now called Kavo Stavro. Many of these names are utterly unknown.

2653 One of the most important towns of Crete, on the N.W. slope of Mount Ida, about fifty stadia from the port of Astale. Mr. Pashley says that some remains probably of this place are still to be seen on a hill near a place called Eletherna, five miles south of the great convent of Arkadhi.

2654 The loftiest point of the mountain-range that traverses the island of Crete from west to east. Its head is covered with snow. The modern name is Psiloriti, looking down on the plain of Mesara. The word Ida is supposed to mean a mountain in which mines are worked, and the Idæi Dactyli of Crete were probably among the first workers in iron and bronze. The position of Mount Cadistus, belonging to the range of White Mountains, has been fixed by Hoeck at Cape Spadha, the most northerly point of the island. It is thought that Pliny and Solinus are in error in speaking of Cadistus and Dictynnæus as separate peaks, these being, both of them, names of the mountain of which the cape was formed; the latter name having been given in later times, from the worship and temple there of Dictynna.

2655 Now Grabusa, the N.W. promontory of Crete.

2656 Now Ras-al-Sem, or Cape Rasat, in Africa. The distance, according to Brotier, is in reality about 225 miles.

2657 Now Skarpanto.

2658 According to Hardouin, all of these are mere rocks rather than islands.

2659 The modern Haghios Theodhoros.

2660 According to Hoeck, they are now called Turlure.

2661 Now called Standiu.

2662 Now Capo Xacro, on the east, though Cape Salomon, further north, has been suggested. In the latter case, the Grandes islands would correspond with Onisia and Leuce, mentioned by Pliny.

2663 Now Gaidurognissa. None of the other islands here mentioned seem to have been identified.

2664 Between Eubœa and Locris. They are now called Ponticonesi.

2665 Now Koluri. It is memorable for the naval battle fought off its coast, when Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480.

2666 Now called Lypsokutali.

2667 Now Makronisi, or “the Long Island.” Its ancient name was also Macris. Strabo identifies it with the Homeric Cranaë, to which Paris fled with Helen.

2668 Usually called Cea, one of the Cyclades, about thirteen miles S.E. of Sunium. Its modern name is Zea. Iulis was the most important town, and the birth-place of the poets Simonides and Bacchylides, of the sophist Prodicus, the physician Erasistratus, and the Peripatetic philosopher Ariston. Extensive remains of it still exist.

2669 There are considerable remains of this town, called by the inhabitants Stais Palais.

2670 Or Coresia. It was the harbour of Iulis, to which place we learn from Strabo that its inhabitants were transferred.

2671 On the S.W. side of the island. Its ruins are inconsiderable, but retain their ancient name.

2672 Now called Eubœa, as also Egripo, or Negropont,—a corruption of the former word and “pont,” “a bridge.”

2673 Hardouin speaks of this as existing in his time, 1670, and being 250 feet in length. It is supposed to have been first constructed about B.C. 411, for the purpose of uninterrupted communication with Bœotia.

2674 Now Capo Mandili.

2675 Now Kavo Doro, or Xylofago.

2676 Now Lithadha, with a mountain 2837 feet above the sea.

2677 These measurements are not exactly correct. The length from north to south is about ninety miles; the extreme breadth across, thirty, and in one part, not more than four miles.

2678 Still extant in the time of Strabo, who speaks of it as an inconsiderable place.

2679 Its site is now called Lipso. It contained warm baths sacred to Hercules, and used by the Dictator Sylla. They are still to be seen.

2680 Now Egripo, or Negropont, having given name to the rest of the island. The Euripus is here only forty yards across, being crossed by a bridge, partly of stone, partly of wood. The poet Lycophron and the orator Isæus were natives of this place, and Aristotle died here.

2681 Near the promontory of that name, now Capo Mandili. In the town there was a famous temple of Poseidon, or Neptune. According to Hardouin, the modern name is Iastura.

2682 One of the most powerful cities of Eubœa. It was destroyed by the Persians under Darius, and a new town was built to the south of the old one. New Eretria stood, according to Leake, at the modern Kastri, and old Eretria in the neighbourhood of Vathy. The tragic poet Achæus, a contemporary of Æschylus, was born here; and a school of philosophy was founded at this place by Menedemus, a disciple of Plato.

2683 Now Karysto, on the south of the island, at the foot of Mount Ocha, upon which are supposed to have been its quarries of marble. There are but few remains of the ancient city. The historian Antigonus, the comic poet Apollodorus, and the physician Diocles, were natives of this place.

2684 Probably on the promontory of the same name. It was off this coast that the Greek fleet engaged that of Xerxes, B.C. 480.

2685 There were tame fish kept in this fountain; and its waters were sometimes disturbed by volcanic agency. Leake says that it has now totally disappeared.

2686 From the fact of its producing copper, and of its being in shape long and narrow.

2687 Strabo remarks, that Homer calls its inhabitants Abantes, while he gives to the island the name of Eubœa. The poets say that it took its name from the cow (Βοῦς) Io, who gave birth to Epaphus on this island.

2688 Hardouin remarks here, that Pliny, Strabo, Mela, and Pausanias use the term “Myrtoan Sea,” as meaning that portion of it which lies between Crete and Attica, while Ptolemy so calls the sea which lies off the coast of Caria.

2689 Now called Spitilus, and the group of Micronisia, or “Little Islands,” according to Hardouin.

2690 From κύκλος, “a circle.”

2691 Now Andro. It gives name to one of the comedies of Terence. The ruins of the ancient city were found by the German traveller Ross, who has published a hymn to Isis, in hexameter verse, which he discovered here. It was famous for its wines.

2692 Now Tino.

2693 From its abounding in snakes (ὄφεις) and scorpions.

2694 Now Mycono, south-east of Tenos and east of Delos. It was famous in ancient mythology as one of the places where Hercules was said to have defeated the Giants. It was also remarkable for the great proportion of bald persons among its inhabitants.

2695 So called from its resemblance to two breasts, μαζοι.

2696 Wheeler says that the distance is but three miles; Tournefort, six.

2697 Once famous for its gold and silver mines, but equally notorious for the bad character of its people. It is now called Siphno.

2698 Now Serpho, lying between Cythnos and Siphnus.

2699 Now Fermina, according to Hardouin.

2700 Between Ceos and Seriphus. It is now called Thermia. Cydias the painter was born here, and it was famous for its cheeses. Its modern name is derived from its hot springs, which are much frequented.

2701 Still called Delos; and, though so celebrated, nothing more than a mere rock, five miles in circumference.

2702 That is, according to Varro, whose statement is ridiculed by Seneca. Some of the editors, however, punctuate this passage differently, making it to mean, “the only island that has never experienced an earthquake. Mucianus however has informed us, that down to the time of M. Varro, it has been twice so visited.”

2703 From its then becoming δῆλος, “plain,” or “manifest.” It was after the fall of Corinth that Delos became so famous for its commerce. Its bronze was in great request.

2704 From ὄρτυξ, “a quail”; the legend being, that Latona was changed into that bird by Jupiter, in order to effect her escape thither from the anger of Juno. Its name of Asteria was derived from ἄστρον, “a star,” either in consequence of its being devoted to the worship of the great luminary Apollo, or of its being considered by the gods the star of the earth. It was also called Lagia, from λαγὼς, “a hare,” that animal abounding there; and Cynæthus, from κύων, “a dog,” it being famous for its hounds.

2705 A bare granite rock, not more than 500 feet in height. The island is now a mass of ruins; a great part of its remains having been carried away in the middle ages to Venice and Constantinople.

2706 Divided by a strait of four stadia in width from Delos. Nicias connected the two islands by a bridge. Its name of Celadussa was said to be derived from the noise of the waves, κέλαδος, and of Artemite, from Artemis, or Diana.

2707 Now Syra; famous for its wine and corn.

2708 Now Antiparos; famous for its stalactite grotto, which is not mentioned by the ancient writers.

2709 Now Paro; south of Delos and west of Naxos. The ruins of its town are still to be seen at the modern Paroikia. The Parian Chronicle, inscribed on marble, and containing a chronicle of Grecian history from Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to B.C. 264, was found here. It is preserved at Oxford.

2710 Chiefly obtained from a mountain called Marpessa.

2711 Now Naxia, famous both in ancient and modern times for its remarkable fertility.

2712 From στρογγύλος, “round,” its shape being somewhat inclined to circular, though by Eustathius it is compared to the shape of a vine-leaf. It is commonly called Dia by the poets. Tournefort says that it is distant forty miles from Delos.

2713 From Διόνυσος, or Bacchus, the god of wine.

2714 Or “Fine City.” It took its other name from the fact of its rivalling the fertility of Sicily.

2715 According to Brotier, the Jesuit Babin, on visiting it, found its circumference estimated at thirty-six miles only.

2716 So called from lying scattered at random as it were, σπορὰς “scattered.”

2717 Helene is supposed to be the modern Pira; Phacussa, Fecussa; Nicasia, Rachia; Schinussa, Schinusa; and Pholegandros, Policandro.

2718 Now Nikaria, to the west of Samos. According to tradition, it derived its name from Icarus, the son of Dædalus, who was believed to have fallen into the sea in its vicinity.

2719 Its length is not so great as is here mentioned by Pliny. Its towns were Drepanum, or Dracanum, Œnoë, and Isti.

2720 The first two names are from the Greek, in allusion to its long, narrow shape, and the last bears reference to the fact of its shores abounding in fish.

2721 Now Scyro, east of Eubœa, and one of the Sporades. Here Achilles was said to have been concealed by his mother Thetis, in woman’s attire.

2722 Now Nio, one of the Sporades, inaccurately called by Stephanus one of the Cyclades. The modern town is built on the site of the ancient one, of which there are some remains. It was said that Homer died here, on his voyage from Smyrna to Athens, and that his mother, Clymene, was a native of this island. In 1773, Van Krienen, a Dutch nobleman, asserted that he had discovered the tomb of Homer here, with certain inscriptions relative to him; but they have been generally regarded by the learned as forgeries. Odia and Oletandros seem not to have been identified.

2723 Now called Gioura, or Jura. It was little better than a barren rock, though inhabited; but so notorious for its poverty, that its mice were said to be able to gnaw through iron. It was used as a place of banishment under the Roman emperors, whence the line of Juvenal, i. 73—

“Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris et carcere dignum.”

“Dare some deed deserving of the little Gyara and the gaol.” It is now uninhabited, except by a few shepherds in the summer.

2724 Now Telos, or Piskopi, a small island in the Carpathian Sea, and one of the Sporades. It lies off the coast of Caria. Syrnos appears not to have been identified.

2725 Near Naxos. Virgil calls it ‘viridis,’ or ‘green,’ which Servius explains by the colour of its marble. Like Gyara, it was used as a place of banishment under the Roman Empire. In C. 22, Pliny has mentioned Cynæthus as one of the names of Delos.

2726 Now Patmo, one of the Sporades, and west of the Promontory of Posidium, in Caria. To this place St. John was banished, and here he wrote the Apocalypse.

2727 A group between Icaria and Samos. They are now called Phurni and Krusi.

2728 One of the Sporades, now Lebitha.

2729 Now Lero. Its inhabitants were of Milesian origin, and of indifferent character. In its temple of Artemis, the sisters of Meleager were said to have been changed into guinea-fowls. It was opposite the coast of Caria.

2730 Now Zinari, N.E. of Amorgos. The artichoke (called κίναρα in Greek) is said to have given name to it.

2731 Now Sikino; between Pholegandros and Ios.

2732 So called, according to Stephanus, from its cultivation of the vine and produce of wine, οἶνος. It was situate between Pholegandros and Ios. It was said to have had the name of Sicinus from a son of Thoas and Œnoë. Hieracia seems to be unknown.

2733 Still known by that name, and lying between Carpathus and Crete. The ruins of the ancient town of Casos are still to be seen at the village of Polin. It is mentioned by Homer.

2734 Now Kimoli, one of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and Melos. It took its name of Echinussa from the ‘Echinus,’ or Sea-urchin, of which various fossil specimens are still found on the coast; but nowhere else in these islands, except the opposite coast of Melos. There are considerable ruins of its ancient town.

2735 Now Milo, the most westerly of the Cyclades. It is remarkable for its extreme fertility. Its town, which, according to most authorities, was called Byblis, was situate on the north of the island.

2736 Ansart remarks, that our author is mistaken in this assertion, for not only are many others of these islands more circular in form, but even that of Kimolo, which stands next to it.

2737 Now Amorgo, S.E. of Naxos. It was the birth-place of the Iambic poet Simonides. It is noted for its fertility. Under the Roman emperors, it was used as a place of banishment.

2738 Now Polybos, or Antimelos, an uninhabited island near Melos. Phyle seems not to have been identified.

2739 Now Santorin, south of the island of Ios. The tradition was, that it was formed from a clod of earth, thrown from the ship Argo. It is evidently of volcanic origin, and is covered with pumice-stone. It was colonized by Lacedæmonians and Minyans of Lemnos, under the Spartan Theras, who gave his name to the island.

2740 A small island to the west of Thera, still known by the same name.

2741 In Lapie’s map, Ascania is set down as the present Christiana.

2742 Now Anaphe, Namfi, or Namphio, one of the Sporades. It was celebrated for the temple of Apollo Ægletes, the foundation of which was ascribed to the Argonauts, and of which considerable remains still exist. It abounds in partridges, as it did also in ancient times.

2743 Now Astropalæa, or Stamphalia. By Strabo it is called one of the Sporades, by Stephanus one of the Cyclades. It probably was favoured by the Romans for the excellence and importance of its harbours. From Hegesander we learn that it was famous for its hares, and Pliny tells us, in B. viii. c. 59, that its mussels were (as they still are) very celebrated.

2744 None of these islands can be now identified, except perhaps Chalcia, also mentioned by Strabo, and now known as Karki.

2745 Now Kalymno, the principal island of the group, by Homer called Calydne. According to most of the editions, Pliny mentions here Calydna and Calymna, making this island, which had those two names, into two islands. Although Pliny here mentions only the town of Coös, still, in B. v. c. 36, he speaks of three others, Notium, Nisyrus, and Mendeterus. There are still some remains of antiquity to be seen here.

2746 Or Carpathus, now Skarpanto. It gave name to the sea between Crete and Rhodes.

2747 It still preserves its ancient name, and presents some interesting remains of antiquity.

2748 Brotier says that the distance is really fifty-two miles.

2749 So called from the town of Petalia, on the mainland. Ansart says that their present name is Spili.

2750 Now Talanti, giving name to the Channel of Talanti.

2751 The present Gulf of Volo, mentioned in C. 15 of the present Book.

2752 Ansart suggests that this may possibly be the small island now called Agios Nicolaos.

2753 Now Trikeri.

2754 In the present Chapter.

2755 Now Scangero, or Skantzoura, according to Ansart.

2756 Now the Gulf of Saloniki, mentioned in C. 17. The islands here mentioned have apparently not been identified.

2757 Off the coast of Thessaly, now Piperi.

2758 Now Skiathos. It was famous for its wine.

2759 Now called Embro, or Imru. Both the island and city of Imbros are mentioned by Homer.

2760 This is double the actual circumference of the island.

2761 Now called Stalimene.

2762 Its site is now called Palæo Kastro. Hephæstia, or Vulcan’s Town, stood near the modern Rapanidi. That god was said to have fallen into this island when thrown from heaven by Jupiter.

2763 Now Thaso, or Tasso. Its gold mines were in early periods very valuable.

2764 Mentioned in C. 17 of this Book.

2765 Ansart says that “forty-two” would be the correct reading here, that being also the distance between Samothrace and Thasos.

2766 Its modern name is Samothraki. It was the chief seat of the mysterious worship of the Cabiri.

2767 Only twelve, according to Ansart.

2768 Barely eighteen, according to Brotier.

2769 Now Monte Nettuno. Of course the height here mentioned by Pliny is erroneous; but Homer says that from this mountain Troy could be seen.

2770 Now called Skopelo, if it is the same island which is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Scopelus. It exports wine in large quantities.

2771 Or the Fox Island, so called from its first settlers having been directed by an oracle to establish a colony where they should first meet a fox with its cub. Like many others of the islands here mentioned, it appears not to have been identified.

2772 See C. 18 of this Book.

2773 None of these islands appear to have been identified by modern geographers.

2774 Now generally known as the Palus Mæotis or Sea of Azof.

2775 The modern Caraboa, according to Brotier, stands on its site. Priapus was the tutelary divinity of Lampsacus in this vicinity.

2776 Or “entrance of Pontus”; now the Sea of Marmora.

2777 “Ox Ford,” or “passage of the cow,” Io being said to have crossed it in that form: now called the “Straits of Constantinople.”

2778 Said to have been called ἄξενος or “inhospitable,” from its frequent storms and the savage state of the people living on its shores. In later times, on the principle of Euphemism, or abstaining from words of ill omen, its name was changed to εὔξεινος, “hospitable.”

2779 This was a favourite comparison of the ancients; the north coast, between the Thracian Bosporus and the Phasis, formed the bow, and the southern shores the string. The Scythian bow somewhat resembled in form the figure Σ, the capital Sigma of the Greeks.

2780 Now the Straits of Kaffa or Enikale.

2781 This town lay about the middle of the Tauric Chersonesus or Crimea, and was situate on a small peninsula, called the Smaller Chersonesus, to distinguish it from the larger one, of which it formed a part. It was founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, or Heracleium, the site of which is unknown. See note 2844 to p. 333.

2782 Now Kertsch, in the Crimea. It derived its name from the river Panticapes; and was founded by the Milesians about B.C. 541. It was the residence of the Greek kings of Bosporus, and hence it was sometimes so called.

2783 “Thirty-six” properly.

2784 The Tanais or Don does not rise in the Riphæan Mountains, or western branch of the Uralian chain, but on slightly elevated ground in the centre of European Russia.

2785 Chap. 18 of the present Book. Istropolis is supposed to be the present Istere, though some would make it to have stood on the site of the present Kostendsje, and Brotier identifies it with Kara-Kerman.

2786 Now called the Schwarzwald or Black Forest. The Danube or Ister rises on the eastern side at the spot called Donaueschingen.

2787 So called from the Raurici, a powerful people of Gallia Belgica, who possessed several towns, of which the most important were Augusta, now Augst, and Basilia, now Bâle.

2788 Only three of these are now considered of importance, as being the main branches of the river. It is looked upon as impossible by modern geographers to identify the accounts given by the ancients with the present channels, by name, as the Danube has undergone in lapse of time, very considerable changes at its mouth. Strabo mentions seven mouths, three being lesser ones.

2789 So called, as stated by Pliny, from the island of Peuce, now Piczina. Peuce appears to have been the most southerly of the mouths.

2790 Now called Kara-Sou, according to Brotier. Also called Rassefu in the maps.

2791 Now called Hazrali Bogasi, according to Brotier. It is called by Ptolemy the Narakian Mouth.

2792 Or the “Beautiful Mouth.” Now Susie Bogasi, according to Brotier.

2793 Or the “False Mouth”: now the Sulina Bogasi, the principal mouth of the Danube, so maltreated by its Russian guardians.

2794 Or the “Passage of the Gnats,” so called from being the resort of swarms of mosquitoes, which were said at a certain time of the year to migrate to the Palus Mæotis. According to Brotier the present name of this island is Ilan Adasi, or Serpent Island.

2795 The “Northern Mouth”: near the town of Kilia.

2796 Or the “Narrow Mouth.”

2797 Though Strabo distinguishes the Getæ from the Daci, most of the ancient writers, with Pliny, speak of them as identical. It is not known, however, why the Getæ in later times assumed the name of Daci.

2798 “Dwellers in waggons.” These were a Sarmatian tribe who wandered with their waggons along the banks of the Volga. The chief seats of the Aorsi, who seem in reality to have been a distinct people from the Hamaxobii, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Caucasus.

2799 “Dwellers in Caves.” This name appears to have been given to various savage races in different parts of the world.

2800 There were races of the Alani in Asia on the Caucasus, and in Europe on the Mæotis and the Euxine; but their precise geographical position is not clearly ascertained.

2801 The present Transylvania and Hungary.

2802 The name given in the age of Pliny to the range of mountains extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary.

2803 Its ruins are still to be seen on the south bank of the Danube near Haimburg, between Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell. The Roman fleet of the Danube, with the 14th legion, was originally established there.

2804 In Pliny’s time this migratory tribe seems to have removed to the plains between the Lower Theiss and the mountains of Transylvania, from which places they had expelled the Dacians.

2805 The Lower Theiss.

2806 Now the river Mark, Maros, or Morava.

2807 The name of the two streams now known as the Dora Baltea and Dora Riparia, both of which fall into the Po. This passage appears to be in a mutilated state.

2808 A chief of the Quadi; who, as we learn from Tacitus, was made king of the Suevi by Germanicus, A.D. 19. Being afterwards expelled by his nephews Vangio and Sido, he received from the emperor Claudius a settlement in Pannonia. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole of the east of Germany from the Danube to the Baltic.

2809 According to Hardouin, Pliny here speaks of the other side of the mountainous district called Higher Hungary, facing the Danube and extending from the river Theiss to the Morava.

2810 This, according to Sillig, is the real meaning of a desertis here, the distance being measured from the Danube, and not between the Vistula and the wilds of Sarmatia. The reading “four thousand” is probably corrupt, but it seems more likely than that of 404 miles, adopted by Littré, in his French translation.

2811 Placed by Forbiger near Lake Burmasaka, or near Islama.

2812 The Dniester. The mountains of Macrocremnus, or the “Great Heights,” seem not to have been identified.

2813 According to Hardouin, the modern name of this island is Tandra.

2814 Now called the Teligul, east of the Tyra or Dniester.

2815 Now called Sasik Beregen, according to Brotier.

2816 The modern Gulf of Berezen, according to Brotier.

2817 Probably the modern Okzakow.

2818 The modern Dnieper. It also retains its ancient name of Borysthenes.

2819 We learn from Strabo that the name of this town was Olbia, and that from being founded by the Milesians, it received the name of Miletopolis. According to Brotier, the modern Zapurouski occupies its site, between the mouths of the river Buzuluk.

2820 This was adjacent to the strip of land called “Dromos Achilleos,” or the ‘race-course of Achilles.’ It is identified by geographers with the little island of Zmievoi or Oulan Adassi, the ‘Serpents Island.’ It was said that it was to this spot that Thetis transported the body of Achilles. By some it was made the abode of the shades of the blest, where Achilles and other heroes of fable were the judges of the dead.

2821 A narrow strip of land N.W. of the Crimea and south of the mouth of the Dnieper, running nearly due west and east. It is now divided into two parts called Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch. Achilles was said to have instituted games here.

2822 According to Hardouin, the Siraci occupied a portion of the present Podolia and Ukraine, and the Tauri the modern Bessarabia.

2823 According to Herodotus, this region, called Hylæa, lay to the east of the Borysthenes. It seems uncertain whether there are now any traces of this ancient woodland; some of the old maps however give the name of the “Black Forest” to this district. From the statements of modern travellers, the woody country does not commence till the river Don has been reached. The district of Hylæa has been identified by geographers with the great plain of Janboylouk in the steppe of the Nogai.

2824 For Enœchadlæ, Hardouin suggests that we should read Inde Hylæi, “hence the inhabitants are called by the name of Hylæi.”

2825 The Panticapes is usually identified with the modern Somara, but perhaps without sufficient grounds. It is more probably the Kouskawoda.

2826 The Nomades or wandering, from the Georgi or agricultural Scythians.

2827 The Acesinus does not appear to have been identified by modern geographers.

2828 Above called Olbiopolis or Miletopolis.

2829 The Bog or Boug. Flowing parallel with the Borysthenes or Dnieper, it discharged itself into the Euxine at the town of Olbia, at no great distance from the mouth of the Borysthenes.

2830 Probably meaning the mouth or point at which the river discharges itself into the sea.

2831 The modern Gulf of Negropoli or Perekop, on the west side of the Chersonesus Taurica or Crimea.

2832 Forming the present isthmus of Perekop, which divides the Sea of Perekop from the Sea of Azof.

2833 Called by Herodotus Hypacyris, and by later writers Carcinites. It is generally supposed to be the same as the small stream now known as the Kalantchak.

2834 Hardouin says that the city of Carcine has still retained its name, but changed its site. More modern geographers however are of opinion that nothing can be determined with certainty as to its site. Of the site also of Navarum nothing seems to be known.

2835 Or Buces or Byce. This is really a gulf, almost enclosed, at the end of the Sea of Azof. Strabo gives a more full description of it under the name of the Sapra Limnè, “the Putrid Lake,” by which name it is still called, in Russian, Sibaché or Sivaché Moré. It is a vast lagoon, covered with water when an east wind blows the water of the Sea of Azof into it, but at other times a tract of slime and mud, sending forth pestilential vapours.

2836 It is rather a ridge of sand, that almost separates it from the waters of the gulf.

2837 This river has not been identified by modern geographers.

2838 According to Herodotus the Gerrhus or Gerrus fell into the Hypacaris; which must be understood to be, not the Kalantchak, but the Outlouk. It is probably now represented by the Moloschnijawoda, which forms a shallow lake or marsh at its mouth.

2839 It is most probable that the Pacyris, mentioned above, the Hypacaris, and the Carcinites, were various names for the same river, generally supposed, as stated above, to be the small stream of Kalantchak.

2840 Now the Crimea.

2841 It does not appear that the site of any of these cities has been identified. Charax was a general name for a fortified town.

2842 Mentioned again by Pliny in B. vi. c. 7. Solinus says that in order to repel avarice, the Satarchæ prohibited the use of gold and silver.

2843 On the site of the modern Perekop, more commonly called Orkapi.

2844 Or Chersonesus of the Heracleans. The town of Kosleve or Eupatoria is supposed to stand on its site.

2845 After the conquest of Mithridates, when the whole of these regions fell into the hands of the Romans.

2846 The modern Felenk-burun. So called from the Parthenos or Virgin Diana or Artemis, whose temple stood on its heights, in which human sacrifices were offered to the goddess.

2847 Supposed to be the same as the now-famed port of Balaklava.

2848 The modern Aia-burun, the great southern headland of the Crimea. According to Plutarch, it was called by the natives Brixaba, which, like the name Criumetopon, meant the “Ram’s Head.”

2849 Now Kerempi, a promontory of Paphlagonia in Asia Minor. Strabo considers this promontory and that of Criumetopon as dividing the Euxine into two seas.

2850 According to Strabo, the sea-line of the Tauric Chersonesus, after leaving the port of the Symboli, extended 125 miles, as far as Theodosia. Pliny would here seem to make it rather greater.

2851 The modern Kaffa occupies its site. The sites of many of the places here mentioned appear not to be known at the present day.

2852 The modern Kertsch, situate on a hill at the very mouth of the Cimmerian Bosporus, or Straits of Enikale or Kaffa, opposite the town of Phanagoria in Asia.

2853 In C. 24 of the present Book. Clark identifies the town of Cimmerium with the modern Temruk, Forbiger with Eskikrimm. It is again mentioned in B. vi. c. 2.

2854 He alludes here, not to the Strait so called, but to the Peninsula bordering upon it, upon which the modern town of Kertsch is situate, and which projects from the larger Peninsula of the Crimea, as a sort of excrescence on its eastern side.

2855 Probably Hermes or Mercury was its tutelar divinity: its site appears to be unknown.

2856 Probably meaning the Straits or passage connecting the Lake Mæotis with the Euxine. The fertile district of the Cimmerian Bosporus was at one time the granary of Greece, especially Athens, which imported thence annually 400,000 medimni of corn.

2857 A town so called on the Isthmus of Perekop, from a τάφρος or trench, which was cut across the isthmus at this point.

2858 Lomonossov, in his History of Russia, says that these people were the same as the Sclavoni: but that one meaning of the name ‘Slavane’ being “a boaster,” the Greeks gave them the corresponding appellation of Auchetæ, from the word αὐχὴ, which signifies “boasting.”

2859 Of the Geloni, called by Virgil “picti,” or “painted,” nothing certain seems to be known: they are associated by Herodotus with the Budini, supposed to belong to the Slavic family by Schafarik. In B. iv. c. 108, 109, of his History, Herodotus gives a very particular account of the Budini, who had a city built entirely of wood, the name of which was Gelonus. The same author also assigns to the Geloni a Greek origin.

2860 The Agathyrsi are placed by Herodotus near the upper course of the river Maris, in the S.E. of Dacia or the modern Transylvania. Pliny however seems here to assign them a different locality.

2861 Also called “Assedones” and “Issedones.” It has been suggested by modern geographers that their locality must be assigned to the east of Ichim, on the steppe of the central horde of the Kirghiz, and that of the Arimaspi on the northern declivity of the chain of the Altaï.

2862 Now the Don.

2863 Most probably these mountains were a western branch of the Uralian chain.

2864 From the Greek πτεροφορὸς, “wing-bearing” or “feather-bearing.”

2865 This legendary race was said to dwell in the regions beyond Boreas, or the northern wind, which issued from the Riphæan mountains, the name of which was derived from ῥιπαὶ or “hurricanes” issuing from a cavern, and which these heights warded off from the Hyperboreans and sent to more southern nations. Hence they never felt the northern blasts, and enjoyed a life of supreme happiness and undisturbed repose. “Here,” says Humboldt, “are the first views of a natural science which explains the distribution of heat and the difference of climates by local causes—by the direction of the winds—the proximity of the sun, and the action of a moist or saline principle.”—Asie Centrale, vol. i.

2866 Pindar says, in the “Pythia,” x. 56, “The Muse is no stranger to their manners. The dances of girls and the sweet melody of the lyre and pipe resound on every side, and wreathing their locks with the glistening bay, they feast joyously. For this sacred race there is no doom of sickness or of disease; but they live apart from toil and battles, undisturbed by the exacting Nemesis.”

2867 Hardouin remarks that Pomponius Mela, who asserts that the sun rises here at the vernal and sets at the autumnal equinox, is right in his position, and that Pliny is incorrect in his assertion. The same commentator thinks that Pliny can have hardly intended to censure Mela, to whose learning he had been so much indebted for his geographical information, by applying to him the epithet “imperitus,” ‘ignorant’ or ‘unskilled’; he therefore suggests that the proper reading here is, “ut non imperiti dixere,” “as some by no means ignorant persons have asserted.”

2868 The Attacori are also mentioned in B. vi. c. 20.

2869 Sillig omits the word “non” here, in which case the reading would be, “Those writers who place them anywhere but, &c.;” it is difficult to see with what meaning.

2870 Herodotus, B. iv., states to this effect, and after him, Pomponius Mela, B. iii. c. 5.

2871 These islands, or rather rocks, are now known as Fanari, and lie at the entrance of the Straits of Constantinople.

2872 From σὺν and πληγὴ, “a striking together.” Tournefort has explained the ancient story of these islands running together, by remarking that each of them consists of one craggy island, but that when the sea is disturbed the water covers the lower parts, so as to make the different points of each resemble isolated rocks. They are united to the mainland by a kind of isthmus, and appear as islands only when it is inundated in stormy weather.

2873 Upon which the city of Apollonia (now Sizeboli), mentioned in C. 18 of the present Book, was situate.

2874 So called because it was dedicated by Lucullus in the Capitol. It was thirty cubits in height.

2875 In C. 24 of the present Book.

2876 Mentioned in the last Chapter as the “Island of Achilles.”

2877 From the Greek μακαρῶν, “(The island) of the Blest.” It was also called the “Island of the Heroes.”

2878 Meaning all the inland or Mediterranean seas.

2879 As the whole of Pliny’s description of the northern shores of Europe is replete with difficulties and obscurities, we cannot do better than transcribe the learned remarks of M. Parisot, the Geographical Editor of Ajasson’s Edition, in reference to this subject. He says, “Before entering on the discussion of this portion of Pliny’s geography, let us here observe, once for all, that we shall not remark as worthy of our notice all those ridiculous hypotheses which could only take their rise in ignorance, precipitation, or a love of the marvellous. We shall decline then to recognize the Doffrefelds in the mountains of Sevo, the North Cape in the Promontory of Rubeas, and the Sea of Greenland in the Cronian Sea. The absurdity of these suppositions is proved by—I. The impossibility of the ancients ever making their way to these distant coasts without the aid of large vessels, the compass, and others of those appliances, aided by which European skill finds the greatest difficulty in navigating those distant seas. II. The immense lacunæ which would be found to exist in the descriptions of these distant seas and shores: for not a word do we find about those numerous archipelagos which are found scattered throughout the North Sea, not a word about Iceland, nor about the numberless seas and fiords on the coast of Norway. III. The absence of all remarks upon the local phænomena of these spots. The North Cape belongs to the second polar climate, the longest day there being two months and a half. Is it likely that navigators would have omitted to mention this remarkable phænomenon, well known to the Romans by virtue of their astronomical theories, but one with which practically they had never made themselves acquainted?—The only geographers who here merit our notice are those who are of opinion that in some of the coasts or islands here mentioned Pliny describes the Scandinavian Peninsula, and in others the Coast of Finland. The first question then is, to what point Pliny first carries us? It is evident that from the Black Sea he transports himself on a sudden to the shores of the Baltic, thus passing over at a single leap a considerable space filled with nations and unknown deserts. The question then is, what line has he followed? Supposing our author had had before his eyes a modern map, the imaginary line which he would have drawn in making this transition would have been from Odessa to the Kurisch-Haff. In this direction the breadth across Europe is contracted to a space, between the two seas, not more than 268 leagues in length. A very simple mode of reasoning will conclusively prove that Pliny has deviated little if anything from this route. If he fails to state in precise terms upon what point of the shores of the Baltic he alights after leaving the Riphæan mountains, his enumeration of the rivers which discharge themselves into that sea, and with which he concludes his account of Germany, will supply us with the requisite information, at all events in great part. In following his description of the coast, we find mention made of the following rivers, the Guttalus, the Vistula, the Elbe, the Weser, the Ems, the Rhine, and the Meuse. The five last mentioned follow in their natural order, from east to west, as was to be expected in a description starting from the east of Europe for its western extremity and the shores of Cadiz. We have a right to conclude then that the Guttalus was to the east of the Vistula. As we shall now endeavour to show, this river was no other than the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel, which the Romans probably, in advancing from west to east, considered as the principal stream, from the circumstance that they met with it, before coming to the larger river. The Pregel after being increased by the waters of the Alle or Guttalus falls into the Frisch-Haff, about one degree further west than the Kurisch-Haff. It may however be here remarked, Why not find a river more to the east, the Niemen, for instance, or the Duna, to be represented by the Guttalus? The Niemen in especial would suit in every respect equally well, because it discharges itself into the Kurisch-Haff. This conjecture however is incapable of support, when we reflect that the ancients were undoubtedly acquainted with some points of the coast to the east of the mouth of the Guttalus, but which, according to the system followed by our author, would form part of the Continent of Asia. These points are, 1st. The Cape Lytarmis (mentioned by Pliny, B. vi. c. 4). 2ndly. The mouth of the river Carambucis (similarly mentioned by him), and 3rdly, a little to the east of Cape Lytarmis, the mouth of the Tanais. The name of Cape Lytarmis suggests to us Lithuania, and probably represents Domess-Ness in Courland; the Carambucis can be no other than the Niemen; while the Tanais, upon which so many authors, ancient and modern, have exhausted their conjectures, from confounding it with the Southern Tanais which falls into the Sea of Azof, is evidently the same as the Dwina or Western Duna. This is established incontrovertibly both by its geographical position (the mouth of the Dwina being only fifty leagues to the east of Domess-Ness) and the identity evidently of the names Dwina and Tanais. Long since, Leibnitz was the first to remark the presence of the radical T. n, or D. n, either with or without a vowel, in the names of the great rivers of Eastern Europe; Danapris or Dnieper, Danaster or Dniester, Danube (in German Donau, in Hungarian Duna), Tanais or Don, for example; all which rivers however discharge themselves into the Black Sea. There can be little doubt then of the identity of the Duna with the Tanais, it being the only body of water in these vast countries which bears a name resembling the initial Tan, or Tn, and at the same time belongs to the basin of the Baltic. We are aware, it is true, that the White Sea receives a river Dwina, which is commonly called the Northern Dwina, but there can be no real necessity to be at the trouble of combating the opinion that this river is identical with the Northern Tanais. As the result then of our investigations, it is at the eastern extremity of the Frisch-Haff and near the mouth of the Pregel, that we would place the point at which Pliny sets out. As for the Riphæan mountains, they have never existed anywhere but in the head of the geographers from whom our author drew his materials. From the mountains of Ural and Poias, which Pliny could not possibly have in view, seeing that they lie in a meridian as eastern as the Caspian Sea, the traveller has to proceed 600 leagues to the south-west without meeting with any chains of mountains or indeed considerable elevations.”

2880 It is pretty clear that he refers to the numerous islands scattered over the face of the Baltic Sea, such as Dago, Oesel, Gothland, and Aland.

2881 The old reading here was Bannomanna, which Dupinet would translate by the modern Bornholm. Parisot considers that the modern Runa, a calcareous rock covered with vegetable earth, in the vicinity of Domess-Ness, is the place indicated.

2882 It has been suggested by Brotier that Pliny here refers to the Icy Sea, but it is more probable that he refers to the north-eastern part of the Baltic, which was looked upon by the ancients us forming part of the open sea.

2883 With reference to these divisions of land and sea, a subject which is involved in the greatest obscurity, Parisot states it as his opinion that the Amalchian or Icy Sea is that portion of the Baltic which extends from Cape Rutt to Cape Grinea, while on the other hand the Cronian Sea comprehends all the gulfs which lie to the east of Cape Rutt, such as the Haff, the gulfs of Stettin and Danzic, the Frisch-Haff, and the Kurisch-Haff. He also thinks that the name of ‘Cronian’ originally belonged only to that portion of the Baltic which washes the coast of Courland, but that travellers gradually applied the term to the whole of the sea. He is also of opinion that the word “Cronium” owes its origin to the Teutonic and Danish adjective groen or “green.” The extreme verdure which characterizes the islands of the Danish archipelago has given to the piece of water which separates the islands of Falster and Moen the name of Groensund, and it is far from improbable that the same epithet was given to the Pomeranian and Prussian Seas, which the Romans would be not unlikely to call ‘Gronium’ or ‘Cronium fretum,’ or ‘Cronium mare.’ In the name ‘Parapanisus’ he also discovers a resemblance to that of modern Pomerania.

2884 Upon this Parisot remarks that on leaving Cape Rutt, at a distance of about twenty-five leagues in a straight line, we come to the island of Funen or Fyen, commonly called Fionia, the most considerable of the Danish archipelago next to Zealand, and which lying between the two Belts, the Greater and the Smaller, may very probably from that circumstance have obtained the name of Baltia. Brotier takes Baltia to be no other than Nova Zembla—so conflicting are the opinions of commentators!

2885 Parisot suggests that under this name may possibly lie concealed that of the modern island of Zealand or Seeland, and that it may have borne on the side of it next to the Belt the name of Baltseeland, easily corrupted by the Greeks into Basilia.

2886 Brotier takes these to be the islands of Aloo, and Bieloi or Ostrow, at the mouth of the river Paropanisus, which he considers to be the same as the Obi. Parisot on the other hand is of opinion that islands of the Baltic are here referred to; that from the resemblance of the name Oönæ to the Greek ὠὸν, “an egg,” the story that the natives subsisted on the eggs of birds was formed; that not improbably the group of the Hippopodes resembled the shape of a horse-shoe, from which the story mentioned by Pliny took its rise; and that the Fanesii (or, as the reading here has it, the Panotii, “all-ears”) wore their hair very short, from which circumstance their ears appeared to be of a larger size than usual.

2887 Tacitus speaks of three great groups of the German tribes, the Ingævones forming the first thereof, and consisting of those which dwelt on the margin of the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istævones in the east and south of Germany. We shall presently find that Pliny adds two groups, the Vandili as the fourth, and the Peucini and Basternæ as the fifth. This classification however is thought to originate in a mistake, for Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Vandili belonged to the Hermiones, and that Peucini and Basternæ are only names of individual tribes and not of groups of tribes.

2888 Brotier and other geographers are of opinion that by this name the chain of the Doffrefeld mountains is meant; but this cannot be the case if we suppose with Parisot that Pliny here returns south from the Scandinavian islands and takes his departure from Cape Rutt in the territory of the Ingævones. Still, it is quite impossible to say what mountains he would designate under the name of Sevo. Parisot suggests that it is a form of the compound word “seevohner,” “inhabitants of the sea,” and that it is a general name for the elevated lands along the margin of the sea-shore.

2889 Parisot supposes that under this name the isle of Funen is meant, but it is more generally thought that Norway and Sweden are thus designated, as that peninsula was generally looked upon as an island by the ancients. The Codanian Gulf was the sea to the east of the Cimbrian Chersonesus or Jutland, filled with the islands which belong to the modern kingdom of Denmark. It was therefore the southern part of the Baltic.

2890 By Eningia Hardouin thinks that the country of modern Finland is meant. Poinsinet thinks that under the name are included Ingria, Livonia, and Courland; while Parisot seems inclined to be of opinion that under this name the island of Zealand is meant, a village of which, about three-fourths of a league from the western coast, according to him, still bears the name of Heinïnge.

2891 Parisot is of opinion that the Venedi, also called Vinidæ and Vindili, were of Sclavish origin, and situate on the shores of the Baltic. He remarks that this people, in the fifth century, founded in Pomerania, when quitted by the Goths, a kingdom, the chiefs of which styled themselves the Konjucs of Vinland. Their name is also to be found in Venden, a Russian town in the government of Riga, in Windenburg in Courland, and in Wenden in the circle of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin.

2892 Parisot remarks that these two peoples were probably only tribes of the Venedi.

2893 Parisot feels convinced that Pliny is speaking here of the Gulf of Travemunde, the island of Femeren, and then of the gulf which extends from that island to Kiel, where the Eider separates Holstein from Jutland. On the other hand, Hardouin thinks that by the Gulf of Cylipenus the Gulf of Riga is meant, and that Latris is the modern island of Oësel. But, as Parisot justly remarks, to put this construction on Pliny’s language is to invert the order in which he has hitherto proceeded, evidently from east to west.

2894 The modern Cape of Skagen on the north of Jutland.

2895 When Drusus held the command in Germany, as we learn from Strabo, B. vii.

2896 It is generally agreed that this is the modern island of Borkhum, at the mouth of the river Amaiius or Ems.

2897 To a bean, from which (faba) the island had its name of Fabaria. In confirmation of this Hardouin states, that in his time there was a tower still standing there which was called by the natives Het boon huys, “the bean house.”

2898 From the word gles or glas, which primarily means ‘glass,’ and then figuratively “amber.” Probably Œland and Gothland. They will be found again mentioned in the Thirtieth Chapter of the present Book. See p. 351.

2899 Now the Scheldt.

2900 In a straight line, of course. Parisot is of opinion that in forming this estimate Agrippa began at the angle formed by the river Piave in lat. 46° 4′, measuring thence to Cape Rubeas (now Rutt) in lat. 54° 25′. This would give 8° 21′, to which, if we add some twenty leagues for obliquity or difference of longitude, the total would make exactly the distance here mentioned.

2901 As Parisot remarks, it is totally impossible to conceive the source of such an erroneous conclusion as this. Some readings make the amount 248, others 268.

2902 As already mentioned, Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Vandili or Vindili properly belonged to the Hermiones. Tacitus mentions but three groups of the German nations; the Ingævones on the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istævones in the east and south of Germany. The Vandili, a Gothic race, dwelt originally on the northern coast of Germany, but afterwards settled north of the Marcomanni on the Riesengebirge. They subsequently appeared in Dacia and Pannonia, and in the beginning of the fifth century invaded Spain. Under Genseric they passed over into Africa, and finally took and plundered Rome in A.D. 455. Their kingdom was finally destroyed by Belisarius.

2903 It is supposed that the Burgundiones were a Gothic people dwelling in the country between the rivers Viadus and Vistula, though Ammianus Marcellinus declares them to have been of pure Roman origin. How they came into the country of the Upper Maine in the south-west of Germany in A.D. 289, historians have found themselves at a loss to inform us. It is not improbable that the two peoples were not identical, and that the similarity of their name arose only from the circumstance that they both resided in “burgi” or burghs. See Gibbon, iii. 99. Bohn’s Ed.

2904 The Varini dwelt on the right bank of the Albis or Elbe, north of the Langobardi. Ptolemy however, who seems to mention them as the Avarini, speaks of them as dwelling near the sources of the Vistula, on the site of the present Cracow. See Gibbon, iv. 225. Bohn’s Ed.

2905 Nothing whatever is known of the locality of this people.

2906 They are also called in history Gothi, Gothones, Gotones and Gutæ. According to Pytheas of Marseilles (as mentioned by Pliny, B. xxxvii. c. 2), they dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, in the vicinity of what is now called the Fritsch-Haff. Tacitus also refers to the same district, though he does not speak of them as inhabiting the coast. Ptolemy again speaks of them as dwelling on the east of the Vistula, and to the south of the Venedi. The later form of their name, Gothi, does not occur till the time of Caracalla. Their native name was Gutthinda. They are first spoken of as a powerful nation at the beginning of the third century, when we find them mentioned as ‘Getæ,’ from the circumstance of their having occupied the countries formerly inhabited by the Sarmatian Getæ. The formidable attacks made by this people, divided into the nations of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, upon the Roman power during its decline, are too well known to every reader of Gibbon to require further notice.

2907 The inhabitants of Chersonesus Cimbrica, the modern peninsula of Jutland. It seems doubtful whether these Cimbri were a Germanic nation or a Celtic tribe, as also whether they were the same race whose numerous hordes successively defeated six Roman armies, and were finally conquered by C. Marius, B.C. 101, in the Campi Raudii. The more general impression, however, entertained by historians, is that they were a Celtic or Gallic and not a Germanic nation. The name is said to have signified “robbers.” See Gibbon, i. 273, iii. 365. Bohn’s Ed.

2908 The Teutoni or Teutones dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, adjacent to the territory of the Cimbri. Their name, though belonging originally to a single nation or tribe, came to be afterwards applied collectively to the whole people of Germany. See Gibbon, iii. 139. Bohn’s Ed.

2909 Also called Cauchi, Cauci, and Cayci, a German tribe to the east of the Frisians, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. The modern Oldenburg and Hanover are supposed to pretty nearly represent the country of the Chauci. In B. xvi. c. 1. 2, will be found a further account of them by Pliny, who had visited their country, at least that part of it which lay on the sea-coast. They are mentioned for the last time in the third century, when they had extended so far south and west that they are spoken of as living on the banks of the Rhine.

2910 Mentioned by Tacitus as dwelling in the east and south of Germany.

2911 It has been suggested by Titzius that the words “quorum Cimbri,” “to whom the Cimbri belong,” are an interpolation; which is not improbable, or at least that the word “Cimbri” has been substituted for some other name.

2912 This appears to be properly the collective name of a great number of the German tribes, who were of a migratory mode of life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the general name of Ingævones. Cæsar speaks of them as dwelling east of the Ubii and Sygambri, and west of the Cherusci. Strabo makes them extend in an easterly direction beyond the Albis or Elbe, and southerly as far as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole of the east of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic. The name of the modern Suabia is derived from a body of adventurers from various German tribes, who assumed the name of Suevi in consequence of their not possessing any other appellation.

2913 A large and powerful tribe of Germany, which occupied the extensive tract of country between the mountains in the north-west of Bohemia and the Roman Wall in the south-west, which formed the boundary of the Agri Decumates. On the east they bordered on the Narisci, on the north-east on the Cherusci, and on the north-west on the Chatti. There is little doubt that they originally formed part of the Suevi. At a later period they spread in a north-easterly direction, taking possession of the north-western part of Bohemia and the country about the sources of the Maine and Saale, that is, the part of Franconia as far as Kissingen and the south-western part of the kingdom of Saxony. The name Hermunduri is thought by some to signify highlanders, and to be a compound of Her or Ar, “high,” and Mund, “man.”

2914 One of the great tribes of Germany, which rose to importance after the decay of the power of the Cherusci. It is thought by ethnographers that their name is still preserved in the word “Hessen.” They formed the chief tribe of the Hermiones here mentioned, and are described by Cæsar as belonging to the Suevi, though Tacitus distinguishes them, and no German tribe in fact occupied more permanently its original locality than the Chatti. Their original abode seems to have extended from the Westerwald in the west to the Saale in Franconia, and from the river Maine in the south as far as the sources of the Elison and the Weser, so that they occupied exactly the modern country of Hessen, including perhaps a portion of the north-west of Bavaria. See Gibbon, vol. iii. 99. Bohn’s Ed.

2915 The Cherusci were the most celebrated of all the German tribes, and are mentioned by Cæsar as of the same importance as the Suevi, from whom they were separated by the Silva Bacensis. There is some difficulty in stating their exact locality, but it is generally supposed that their country extended from the Visurgis or Weser in the west to the Albis or Elbe in the east, and from Melibocus in the north to the neighbourhood of the Sudeti in the south, so that the Chamavi and Langobardi were their northern neighbours, the Chatti the western, the Hermunduri the southern, and the Silingi and Semnones their eastern neighbours. This tribe, under their chief Arminius or Hermann, forming a confederation with many smaller tribes in A.D. 9, completely defeated the Romans in the famous battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In later times they were conquered by the Chatti, so that Ptolemy speaks of them only as a small tribe on the south of the Hartz mountain. Their name afterwards appears, in the beginning of the fourth century, in the confederation of the Franks.

2916 The Peucini are mentioned here, as also by Tacitus, as identical with the Basternæ. As already mentioned, supposing them to be names for distinct nations, they must be taken as only names of individual tribes, and not of groups of tribes. It is generally supposed that their first settlements in Sarmatia were in the highlands between the Theiss and the March, whence they passed onward to the lower Danube, as far as its mouth, where a portion of them, settling in the island of Peuce, obtained the name of Peucini. In the later geographers we find them settled between the Tyrus or Dniester, and the Borysthenes or Dnieper, the Peucini remaining at the mouth of the Danube.

2917 According to Parisot, the Guttalus is the same as the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel. Cluver thinks that it is the same as the Oder. Other writers again consider it the same as the Pregel.

2918 Or Elbe.

2919 Now the Weser.

2920 The modern Ems.

2921 The Meuse.

2922 The ‘Hercynia Silva,’ Hercynian Forest or Range, is very differently described by the writers of various ages. The earliest mention of it is by Aristotle. Judging from the accounts given by Cæsar, Pomponius Mela, and Strabo, the ‘Hercynia Silva’ appears to have been a general name for almost all the mountains of Southern and Central Germany, that is, from the sources of the Danube to Transylvania, comprising the Schwarzwald, Odenwald, Spessart, Rhön, Thuringer Wald, the Hartz mountain (which seems in a great measure to have retained the ancient name), Raube Alp, Steigerwald, Fichtelgebirge, Erzgebirge, and Riesengebirge. At a later period when the mountains of Germany had become better known, the name was applied to the more limited range extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary.

2923 This island appears to have been formed by the bifurcation of the Rhine, the northern branch of which enters the sea at Katwyck, a few miles north of Leyden, by the Waal and the course of the Maas, after it has received the Waal, and by the sea. The Waal or Vahalis seems to have undergone considerable changes, and the place of its junction with the Maas may have varied. Pliny makes the island nearly 100 miles in length, which is about the distance from the fort of Schenkenschanz, where the first separation of the Rhine takes place, to the mouth of the Maas. The name of Batavia was no doubt the genuine name, which is still preserved in Betuwe, the name of a district at the bifurcation of the Rhine and the Waal. The Canninefates, a people of the same race as the Batavi, also occupied the island, and as the Batavi seem to have been in the eastern part, it is supposed that the Canninefates occupied the western. They were subdued by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus.

2924 The Frisii or Frisones were one of the great tribes of north-western Germany, properly belonging to the group of the Ingævones. They inhabited the country about Lake Flevo and other lakes, between the Rhine and the Ems, so as to be bounded on the south by the Bructeri, and on the east by the Chauci. Tacitus distinguishes between the Frisii Majores and Minores, and it is supposed that the latter dwelt on the east of the canal of Drusus in the north of Holland, and the former between the rivers Flevus and Amisia, that is, in the country which still bears the name of Friesland. The Chauci have been previously mentioned.

2925 The Frisiabones or Frisævones are again mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book as a people of Gaul. In what locality they dwelt has not been ascertained by historians.

2926 The Sturii are supposed to have inhabited the modern South Holland, while the Marsacii probably inhabited the island which the Meuse forms at its junction with the Rhine, at the modern Dortrecht in Zealand.

2927 Supposed to be the site of the modern fortress of Briel, situate at the mouth of the Meuse.

2928 Probably the same as the modern Vlieland (thus partly retaining its ancient name), an island north of the Texel. The more ancient writers speak of two main arms, into which the Rhine was divided on entering the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on the east continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while that on the west into which the Masa, Maas or Meuse, flowed, was called Vahalis or Waal. After Drusus, B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus or Zuyder-Zee with the Rhine by means of a canal, in forming which he probably made use of the bed of the Yssel, we find mention made of three mouths of the Rhine. Of these the names, as given by Pliny, are, on the west, Helium (the Vahalis of other writers), in the centre Rhenus, and at the north Flevum; but at a later period we again find mention made of only two mouths.

2929 Britain was spoken of by some of the Greek writers as superior to all other islands in the world. Dionysius, in his Periegesis, says, “that no other islands whatsoever can claim equality with those of Britain.”

2930 Said to have been so called from the whiteness of its cliffs opposite the coast of Gaul.

2931 Afterwards called Bononia, the modern Boulogne. As D’Anville remarks, the distance here given by Pliny is far too great, whether we measure to Dover or to Hythe; our author’s measurement however is probably made to Rutupiæ (the modern Richborough), near Sandwich, where the Romans had a fortified post, which was their landing-place when crossing over from Gaul. This would make the distance given by Pliny nearer the truth, though still too much.

2932 Probably the Grampian range is here referred to.

2933 The people of South Wales.

2934 The Orkney islands were included under this name. Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy make them but thirty in number, while Solinus fixes their number at three only.

2935 Also called Æmodæ or Hæmodæ, most probably the islands now known as the Shetlands. Camden however and the older antiquarians refer the Hæmodæ to the Baltic sea, considering them different from the Acmodæ here mentioned, while Salmasius on the other hand considers the Acmodæ or Hæmodæ and the Hebrides as identical. Parisot remarks that off the West Cape of the Isle of Skye and the Isle of North Uist, the nearest of the Hebrides to the Shetland islands, there is a vast gulf filled with islands, which still bears the name of Mamaddy or Maddy, from which the Greeks may have easily derived the words Αἱ Μαδδαὶ, whence the Latin Hæmodæ.

2936 The Isle of Anglesea.

2937 Most probably the Isle of Man.

2938 Camden and Gosselin (Rech. sur la Géogr. des Anciens) consider that under this name is meant the island of Racklin, situate near the north-eastern extremity of Ireland. A Ricina is spoken of by Ptolemy, but that island is one of the Hebrides.

2939 This Vectis is considered by Gosselin to be the same as the small island of White-Horn, situate at the entrance of the Bay of Wigtown in Scotland. It must not be confounded with the more southern Vectis, or Isle of Wight.

2940 According to Gosselin this is the island of Dalkey, at the entrance of Dublin Bay.

2941 Camden thinks that this is the same as Bardsey Island, at the south of the island of Anglesea, while Mannert and Gosselin think that it is the island of Lambay.

2942 According to Brotier these islands belong to the coast of Britanny, being the modern isles of Sian and Ushant.

2943 As already mentioned, he probably speaks of the islands of Œland and Gothland, and Ameland, called Austeravia or Actania, in which glæsum or amber was found by the Roman soldiers. See p. 344.

2944 The opinions as to the identity of ancient Thule have been numerous in the extreme. We may here mention six:—1. The common, and apparently the best founded opinion, that Thule is the island of Iceland. 2. That it is either the Ferroe group, or one of those islands. 3. The notion of Ortelius, Farnaby, and Schœnning, that it is identical with Thylemark in Norway. 4. The opinion of Malte Brun, that the continental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which is to the present day called Thy or Thyland. 5. The opinion of Rudbeck and of Calstron, borrowed originally from Procopius, that this is a general name for the whole of Scandinavia. 6. That of Gosselin, who thinks that under this name Mainland, the principal of the Shetland Islands, is meant. It is by no means impossible that under the name of Thule two or more of these localities may have been meant, by different authors writing at distant periods and under different states of geographical knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as Parisot remarks, that the Thule mentioned by Ptolemy is identical with Thylemark in Norway.

2945 B. ii. c. 77.

2946 Brotier thinks that under this name a part of Cornwall is meant, and that it was erroneously supposed to be an island. Parisot is of opinion that the copyists, or more probably Pliny himself, has made an error in transcribing Mictis for Vectis, the name of the Isle of Wight. It is not improbable however that the island of Mictis had only an imaginary existence.

2947 “White lead”: not, however, the metallic substance which we understand by that name, but tin.

2948 Commonly known as “coracles,” and used by the Welch in modern times. See B. vii. c. 57 of this work, and the Note.

2949 Brotier, with many other writers, takes these names to refer to various parts of the coast of Norway. Scandia he considers to be the same as Scania, Bergos the modern Bergen, and Nerigos the northern part of Norway. On the other hand, Gosselin is of opinion that under the name of Bergos the Scottish island of Barra is meant, and under that of Nerigos, the island of Lewis, the northern promontory of which is in the old maps designated by the name of Nary or Nery. Ptolemy makes mention of an island called Doumna in the vicinity of the Orcades.

2950 Transalpine Gaul, with the exception of that part of it called Narbonensis, was called Gallia Comata, from the custom of the people allowing their hair to grow to a great length.

2951 From the Scheldt to the Seine.

2952 From the Seine to the Garonne.

2953 Lyonese Gaul, from Lugdunum, the ancient name of the city of Lyons.

2954 Said by Camden to be derived from the Celtic words Ar - mor, “by the Sea.”

2955 The provinces of Antwerp and North Brabant.

2956 Inhabiting Western Flanders.

2957 So called, it is supposed, from the Celtic word Mor, which means “the sea.” Térouane and Boulogne are supposed to occupy the site of their towns, situate in the modern Pas de Calais.

2958 D’Anville places them between Calais and Gravellines, in the Pas de Calais, and on the spot now known as the Terre de Marck or Merk.

2959 Boulogne, previously mentioned.

2960 Cluver thinks that “Brianni” would be the correct reading here; but D’Anville places the Britanni on the southern bank of the stream called La Canche in the Pas de Calais.

2961 According to Parisot and Ansart they occupied the department of the Somme, with places on the site of Amiens (derived from their name) and Abbeville for their chief towns.

2962 They dwelt in the modern department of the Oise, with Beauvais (which still retains their name) for their chief town.

2963 D’Anville is of opinion that the place called Haiz or Hez in the diocese of Beauvais, received its name from this people, of whom nothing else is known. The name is omitted in several of the editions.

2964 D’Anville is of opinion that their chief town was situate at the modern Chaours, at the passage of the river Serre, not far from Vervins in the department of the Aisne.

2965 According to Ptolemy their chief town would be on the site of the modern Orchies in the department du Nord, but Cæsar makes it to be Nemetacum, the modern Arras, the capital of the department of the Pas de Calais.

2966 According to Ansart their chief town was Bavai, in the department du Nord. They are called “Liberi,” or free, because they were left at liberty to enjoy their own laws and institutions.

2967 Their capital was Augusta Veromanduorum, and it has been suggested that the place called Vermand, in the department de l’Aisne, denotes its site; but according to Bellay and D’Anville the city of St. Quentin, which was formerly called Aouste, marks the spot.

2968 Nothing whatever is known of them, and it is suggested by the commentators that this is a corrupted form of the name of the Suessiones, which follows.

2969 They gave name to Soissons in the southern part of the department de l’Aisne.

2970 It has been suggested that these are the same as the Silvanectes, the inhabitants of Senlis in the department de l’Oise.

2971 The people of Tongres, in the provinces of Namur, Liège, and Limbourg.

2972 They are supposed to have dwelt in the eastern part of the province of Limbourg.

2973 They probably dwelt between the Sunuci and the Betasi.

2974 They are supposed to have dwelt in the western part of the province of Limbourg, on the confines of that province and South Brabant, in the vicinity probably of the place which still bears the name of Beetz, upon the river Gette, between Leau and Haclen, seven miles to the east of Louvain.

2975 According to Ptolemy the Leuci dwelt on the sites of Toul in the department of the Meurthe, and of Nais or Nays in that of the Meuse.

2976 From them Trèves or Trier, in the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine, takes its name.

2977 Their chief town was on the site of Langres, in the department of the Haute Marne.

2978 They gave name to the city of Rheims in the department of the Marne.

2979 Their chief town stood on the site of the modern Metz, in the department of the Moselle.

2980 Besançon stands on the site of their chief town, in the department of the Doubs, extending as far as Bâle.

2981 The inhabitants of the district called the Haut Rhin or Higher Rhine.

2982 The inhabitants of the west of Switzerland.

2983 Or the “Equestrian Colony,” probably founded by the Roman Equites. It is not known where this colony was situate, but it is suggested by Cluver and Monetus that it may have been on the lake of Geneva, in the vicinity of the modern town of Nyon.

2984 Littré, in a note, remarks that Rauriaca is a barbarism, and that the reading properly is “Raurica.”

2985 Spire was their chief city, in the province of the Rhine.

2986 They are supposed to have occupied Strasbourg, and the greater part of the department of the Lower Rhine.

2987 They dwelt in the modern Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt; Worms was their chief city.

2988 That is, nearer the mouths of the Rhine.

2989 They originally dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, but were transported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their own request, from a wish to escape the attacks of the Suevi.

2990 Now known as the city of Cologne. It took its name from Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and the mother of Nero, who was born there, and who, as Tacitus says, to show off her power to the allied nations, planted a colony of veteran soldiers in her native city, and gave to it her own name.

2991 Their district was in the modern circle of Clèves, in the province of Juliers-Berg-Clèves.

2992 Dwelling in the Insula Batavorum, mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

2993 He first speaks of the nations on the coast, and then of those more in the interior.

2994 Dwelling in the west of the department of Calvados, and the east of the department of the Eure. From them Lisieux takes its name.

2995 They occupied the department of the Lower Seine.

2996 They are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of Lillebonne, in the department of the Lower Seine.

2997 They gave name to the town of Vannes in the department of Morbihan.

2998 From them the city of Avranches, in the department of La Manche, derives its name.

2999 They occupied the modern department of Finisterre.

3000 The Loire.

3001 This spot is placed by D’Anville near the modern city of Saint Brieuc. He refers here to the peninsula of Brittany, which ends in Finisterre.

3002 Ansart remarks that the circuit of the peninsula from Saint Brieuc to the mouth of the river Vilaine is only 450 miles, but that if taken from the city of Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, it is 650.

3003 Ansart states that from Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, in a straight line, is twenty miles less than the distance here given by Pliny.

3004 Inhabitants of the department of the Lower Loire or Loire Inférieure.

3005 This extensive people inhabited the present departments of the Saone et Loire, Allier, Nievre, Rhone nord, and Loire nord. Autun and Chalons-sur-Marne stand on the site of their ancient towns.

3006 They inhabited the departments of the Eure et Loire, and portions of those of the Seine et Oise, of the Loire et Cher, and of the Loiret. Chartres occupies the site of their town.

3007 They occupied a part of the department of the Allier. Moulins stands on the site of their chief town.

3008 Sens, in the department of the Yonne, stands on the site of their chief town.

3009 The chief town of the Aulerci Eburovices was on the site of the present Passy-sur-Eure, called by the inhabitants Old Evreux, in the department of the Eure.

3010 They dwelt in the vicinity of the city of Le Mans, in the department of the Sarthe.

3011 Meaux, in the department of the Seine et Marne, denotes the site of their principal town.

3012 Paris, anciently Lutetia, denotes their locality.

3013 The city of Troyes, in the department of the Aube, denotes their locality.

3014 Their chief town stood on the site of Angers, in the department of the Maine et Loire.

3015 D’Anville says that their chief town stood on the spot now known as Vieux, two leagues from Caen, in the department of Calvados.

3016 The reading here is not improbably “Vadicasses.” If so, they were a people situate at a great distance from the other tribes here mentioned by Pliny. They dwelt in the department De l’Oise, in the district formerly known as Valois, their chief town or city occupying the site of Vez, not far from Villers Cotterets.

3017 D’Anville assigns to the Venelli, or Unelli, as some readings have it, the former district of Cotantin, now called the department of La Manche.

3018 According to D’Anville, Corseuil, two leagues from Dinan, in the department of the Côtes du Nord, denotes the site of their chief town. Hardouin takes Quimper to mark the locality.

3019 They are supposed by Ansart to have occupied that part of the department of La Mayenne where we find the village of Jublains, two leagues from the city of Mayenne.

3020 D’Anville assigns to them the greater part of the department of the Ile et Vilaine, and is of opinion that the city of Rennes occupies the site of Condate, their chief town.

3021 Tours, in the department of the Indre et Loire, marks the site of their chief town.

3022 They are supposed to have occupied a portion of the department of the Loire.

3023 They probably occupied a part of the department of the Loire, as also of that of the Rhone. Their town, Forum Secusianorum, stood on the site of the present Feurs, in the department of the Loire.

3024 The city of Lyons occupies the site of ancient Lugdunum. It is suggested by Hardouin, that the name Lugdunum is a corruption of “Lucudunum,” a compound of the Latin word lucus, “a grove,” and the Celtic dun, “a hill” or “mountain.”

3025 They are mentioned by Cæsar (B. C. iii. 9), in conjunction with the Nannetes, Morini, and others, but nothing can be inferred as to the precise position they occupied.

3026 Their locality also is unknown, but it is supposed that they dwelt in the vicinity of the department of La Vendée.

3027 From them ancient Poitou received its name. They are supposed to have occupied the department of the Haute-Vienne, and portions of the departments of La Vendée, the Loire Inférieure, the Maine et Loire, the Deux-Sèvres, and La Vienne.

3028 They gave name to the former Saintonge, now the department of Charente and Charente Inférieure. The town of Saintes occupies the site of their chief town.

3029 They occupied the modern department of the Gironde. The city of Bordeaux occupies the site of their chief town.

3030 They gave name to Aquitaine, which became corrupted into Guyenne. Pliny is the only author that makes the Aquitani a distinct people of the province of Aquitanica. The Tarusates are supposed to have afterwards occupied the site here referred to by him, with Atures for their chief town, afterwards called Aire, in the department of the Landes.

3031 Their locality is unknown, but it has been suggested that they occupied the departments of the Basses Pyrénées, or Lower Pyrenees.

3032 So called from the Latin verb convenire, “to assemble” or “meet together.” They are said to have received this name from the circumstance that Ptolemy, after the close of the Sertorian war, finding a pastoral people of predatory habits inhabiting the range of the Pyrenees, ordered them to unite together and form a community in a town or city. From them the present town of Saint Bertrand de Comminges, in the S.W. of the department of the Haute Garonne, derives its Latin name “Lugdunum Convenarum.”

3033 By Cæsar called the Bigerriones. Their name was preserved in that of the district of Bigorre, now the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Their chief town was Turba, now Tarbes.

3034 By calling the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani, he seems to imply that their chief town was a place garrisoned by four maniples of soldiers, each with a signum or standard. Aquæ Tarbellicæ was their chief town, the modern Acqs or Dax, in the S.W. of the department of the Landes.

3035 Their chief town was probably garrisoned by six signa or maniples. Cocosa, or Coequosa, as it is written in the Antonine Itinerary, is the first place on a road from Aquæ Tarbellicæ or Dax to Burdegala or Bordeaux, now called Marensin. Their locality was in the southern part of the department of the Landes, the inhabitants of which are still divided into two classes, the Bouges, those of the north, or of the Tête de Buch; and the Cousiots, those of the south.

3036 Their locality is unknown.

3037 D’Anville would read “Onobusates,” and thinks that they dwelt in the district called Nébousan, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. He is also of opinion that their town stood on the site of the modern Cioutat, between the rivers Adour and Neste.

3038 They occupied the southern part of the department of the Gironde.

3039 From them Hardouin suggests that Moneins, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées, takes its name.

3040 D’Anville is of opinion that they inhabited and gave name to the Vallée d’Ossun, between the Pyrenees and the city of Oléron in the department of the Basses Pyrénées.

3041 D’Anville places them in the Vallée de Soule, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées.

3042 From them Campon, a place in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées, is supposed to have received its name.

3043 Biscarosse, not far from Tête de Buch in the department of the Landes, is supposed to derive its name from this tribe.

3044 Nothing whatever is known of them.

3045 The more general reading is “Sassumini.” Ansart suggests that the town of Sarrum, between Cognac and Périgueux, in the department of the Dordogne, may have received its name from them.

3046 Ansart suggests that Rieumes, in the department of the Haute Garonne, occupies the site of Ryesium, their chief town, mentioned by Ptolemy.

3047 They are supposed to have given name to Tournay, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées.

3048 Supposed to be the same as the Consuarini, mentioned in B. iii. c. 5.

3049 They probably gave name to Auch, in the department of Gers.

3050 Their chief town occupied the site of Euse or Eause, in the department of Gers.

3051 Their locality is marked by Soz, in the department of the Lot-et-Garonne.

3052 Or “Oscidates of the Plains.” They probably gave name to Ossun, two miles from Tarbes, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées.

3053 From them the village of Cestas, three leagues from Bordeaux, in the department of the Gironde, is supposed to derive its name.

3054 The village of Tursan, in the department of the Landes, probably derived its name from this tribe.

3055 Their town was Cossio, afterwards Vasates, now Bazas, in the department of the Gironde.

3056 The site of the Vassei and the Sennates appears to be unknown.

3057 D’Anville is of opinion that this tribe gave name to Aisenay or Azenay, a village four leagues distant from Bourbon-Vendée, in the department of La Vendée.

3058 They occupied the district formerly known as Berry, but now the departments of the Indre, the Cher, and the west of the department of the Allier. Their chief town was Avaricum, now Bourges.

3059 They inhabited the district formerly known as the Limosin, now the departments of the Creuse, the Haute Vienne, and the Corrèze. Their chief town was Augustoritum, afterwards Lemovices, now Limoges.

3060 They occupied the district formerly known as Auvergne, forming the present department of the Allier, and the southern part of the Puy de Dôme and the Cantal. Augustonemetum was their chief town, now Clermont.

3061 Situate in the district formerly known as Gevaudan, now the department of La Lozère. Their chief town stood on the site of the present small town of Javoulx, four leagues from Mende.

3062 They are supposed to have occupied the former district of Rouergue, now known as the department of Aveyron. Their chief town was Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now known as Rhodez.

3063 They occupied the former district of Querci, the present department of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Divona, afterwards Cadurci, now Cahors, was their principal town.

3064 According to Ptolemy their town was Aginnum, probably the modern Agen, in the present department of Lot-et-Garonne. “Antobroges,” however, is the more common reading.

3065 They occupied the district formerly known as Périgord, in the department of the Dordogne; their town was Vesanna, afterwards Petrocori, now Périgueux.

3066 Ansart says they are about 200 in number, consisting of Belle Isle, Groaix, Houat, Hoedic, and others. Also probably Morbihan.

3067 The Isle of Oleron, the fountain-head of the maritime laws of Europe.

3068 He means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after leaving the narrow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of Lusitania.

3069 B. iii. c. 3.

3070 From Ruscino to Gades.

3071 In the province now known as Guipuzcoa.

3072 Supposed to be the present Cabo de la Higuera.

3073 Probably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay and Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the province of Guipuzcoa.

3074 According to Hardouin the modern San Sebastian occupies the site of their town.

3075 On the same site as the modern Bermeo, according to Mannert. Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probability, that it was situate at the mouth of the river Orio.

3076 D’Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo.

3077 Poinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D’Anville calls it Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander, with which opinion Ansart agrees.

3078 According to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of Palencia and Toro.

3079 Most probably the present Rio de Suancès, by Mannert called the Saya, into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the Nervio.

3080 Ansart suggests that this is the modern San Vicente de la Barquera. If the river Sauga is the same with the Suancès, this cannot be the port of Santander, as has been suggested.

3081 Or Ebro.

3082 According to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de Ballota or else the Puerta de Pô.

3083 According to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note 3078 above.

3084 Hardouin takes this to be Villaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Ria de Cella occupies its site.

3085 They are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the principality of the Asturias and the province of Leon.

3086 Hardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia or Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the interior. Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa.

3087 No doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas.

3088 Now Lugo in Gallicia.

3089 Supposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio Labio discharges itself.

3090 Supposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic promontory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri and Iadoni nothing whatever is known.

3091 Their towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Finisterre.

3092 Mannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones; the Florius seems not to have been identified.

3093 The inhabitants of Cape Finisterre.

3094 Dwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its modern name of Tambre.

3095 Mannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was probably the modern Cabo Taurinan or Cabo Villano, most probably the latter.

3096 On the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri.

3097 Their towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior, on the sites of the present Santiago de Compostella and Lugo.

3098 Probably the modern Noya.

3099 They are supposed to have occupied the district in which the warm springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis and Caldas de Rey.

3100 It is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those called Carreira, at the mouth of the river Ulla, and the Islas de Ons, at the mouth of the Tenario.

3101 See B. iii. c. 4.

3102 Inhabiting the vicinity of the modern Pontevedra.

3103 According to Ptolemy also their town was Tudæ, the modern Tuy.

3104 The modern Islas de Seyas or of Bayona.

3105 The town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the river Minho.

3106 The Minho.

3107 They occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and known as Entre Douro y Minho.

3108 Now Braga on the Cavado.

3109 The Lima.

3110 The river Douro.

3111 See B. iii. c. 3.

3112 Both lead, properly so called, and tin.

3113 In a great degree corresponding with modern Portugal, except that the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and Douro.

3114 To distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii. c. 3.) The Pæsuri occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca.

3115 The modern Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised from the ruins of ancient Talabrica.

3116 Agueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the river and the town.

3117 Coimbra, formerly Condeja la Veja.

3118 Leiria is supposed to occupy its site.

3119 According to Hardouin, the modern Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues from Leiria.

3120 The modern Cabo de la Roca, seven leagues from Lisbon.

3121 Pliny, in C. 34, places the Arrotrebæ, belonging to the Conventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which, if not the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is evidently in its immediate neighbourhood; but he confuses the whole matter by a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called Artabrum as the headland at the N.W. extremity of Spain; the coast on the one side of it looking to the north and the Gallic Ocean, on the other to the west and the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this promontory to be the west headland of the estuary of the Tagus, and adds, that some called it Magnum Promontorium, or the “Great Promontory,” and others Olisiponense, from the city of Olisipo, or Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the west coast of Spain, down to the mouth of the Tagus, to the north coast, and, instead of being led to detect his error by the resemblance of name between his Artabrum Promontorium and his Arrotrebæ (the Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo and Mela), he perversely finds fault with those who had placed above the promontory Artabrum, a people of the same name who never were there.

3122 On the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands.

3123 See note 3121 in the preceding page.

3124 See note 3121.

3125 See note 3116 in the preceding page.

3126 Among these is Pomponius Mela, who confounds the river Limia, mentioned in the last chapter, with the Æminius, or Agueda.

3127 Now the river Mondego.

3128 See B. xxxiii. c. 21.

3129 Now Cape St. Vincent.

3130 Pliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western side of Spain for the north, and part of the southern coast for the western.

3131 B. iii. c. 2.

3132 With the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See B. iii. c. 3.

3133 In the present province of Algarve.

3134 Now Lisbon. Both Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella make mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city.

3135 See B. viii. c. 67 of the present work.

3136 According to Hardouin, followed by D’Anville and Uckert, this place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and the sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D’Anville however supposes to be the ancient Cetobriga.

3137 On its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent.

3138 Or the “Wedge,” generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria. Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Cape St. Vincent. Pliny’s words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria.

3139 According to Hardouin, the modern Estombar; according to D’Anville, in the vicinity of Faro; but ten leagues from that place, according to Mannert.

3140 Hardouin and D’Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies its site.

3141 Now Mertola, on the river Guadiana.

3142 Now Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti) was planted there by Augustus.

3143 Now Medellin, in the province of Estremadura.

3144 Pax Julia, or Pax Augusta, in the country of the Turduli, or Turdetani; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo.

3145 Now Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura.

3146 Now Truxillo, so called from Turris Julia.

3147 Now Caceres.

3148 Now called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin.

3149 “The Garrison of Julius.”

3150 “The Success of Julius.”

3151 Evora, between the Guadiana and the Tagus.

3152 “The Liberality of Julius.”

3153 B. iii. c. 3.

3154 Hardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented by the present Ponte del Arcobispo.

3155 From Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained.

3156 Capera stood on the site now called Las Ventas de Capara, between Alcantara and Coria. The site of Cæsarobrica has not been ascertained.

3157 Coria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura.

3158 Hardouin suggests that the modern Tomar occupies the site of Concordia.

3159 Mannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in the north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modern Zamora.

3160 To distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli, mentioned in B. iii. c. 3. Some writers think that this Mirobriga is the present Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the place called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city.

3161 The name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Hardouin says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called Plumbarii, from lead mines in their vicinity.

3162 According to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modern Capara.

3163 From Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of Fontarabia and Saint Sebastian.

3164 From the Greek κασσίτερος, “tin.” It is generally supposed that the “Tin Islands” were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall. At the same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their knowledge from the accounts probably of the Phœnician merchants, seem to have had a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to have thought them to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find Strabo, in B. iii., saying, that “the Cassiterides are ten in number, lying near each other in the ocean, towards the north from the haven of the Artabri.” From a comparison of the accounts, it would almost appear that the ancient geographers confused the Scilly Islands with the Azores, as those, who enter into any detail, attribute to the Cassiterides the characteristics almost as much of the Azores and the sea in their vicinity, as of the Scilly Islands.

3165 Cape Finisterre.

3166 Or the “Islands of the Blest.” We cannot do better than quote a portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith’s “Dictionary of Ancient Geography.” “‘Fortunatæ Insulæ’ is one of those geographical names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards came to have a specific application, so closely resembling the old mythical notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that notion was based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the regions afterwards discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the abode of the happy departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the Mediterranean, at the extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of the river Oceanus, or in islands in its midst; and Homer’s poetical description of the place may be applied almost word for word to those islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, to which the name was given in the historical period. (Od. iv. l. 563, seq.) ‘There the life of mortals is most easy; there is no snow, nor winter, nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending up the shrill breathing breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.’ Their delicious climate, and their supposed identity of situation, marked out the Canary Islands, the Madeira group, and the Azores, as worthy to represent the Islands of the Blest. In the more specific sense, however, the name was applied to the two former groups; while, in its widest application, it may have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its extension being in fact adapted to that of maritime discovery.” Pliny gives a further description of them in B. vi. c. 37.

3167 The strait between the island and the mainland is now called the River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny, varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is probably correct.

3168 Julius Cæsar, on his visit to the city of Gades, during the Civil War in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all the citizens of Gades. Under Augustus it became a municipium, with the title of ‘Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.’ The modern city of Cadiz is built upon its site.

3169 Or the Island of Venus.

3170 From the Greek word κότινος, “an olive-tree.”

3171 If Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish of Scripture), its exact locality is a question in dispute. Most ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river Bætis, while others identify it, and perhaps with more probability, with the city of Carteia, on Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of Gibraltar was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c. 3.

3172 Or more properly ‘Agadir,’ or ‘Hagadir.’ It probably received this name, meaning a ‘hedge,’ or ‘bulwark,’ from the fact of its being the chief Phœnician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules.

3173 Of Erythræa, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Geryones, fabled to have had three bodies, lived in the fabulous Island of Erytheia, or the “Red Isle,” so called because it lay under the rays of the setting sun in the west. It was originally said to be situate off the coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified either with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to be in the distant west. Geryon was said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the wealthy king of Iberia.

3174 Alluding to B. iii. c. 6. From Rhegium to the Alps. But there the reading is 1020.

3175 Meaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it Britannicum, from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain.

3176 The present Santen in the Duchy of Cleves.

3177 See end of B. iii.

3178 See end of B. ii.

3179 See end of B. iii.

3180 See end of B. iii.

3181 See end of B. iii.

3182 See end of B. ii.

3183 See end of B. iii.

3184 See end of B. iii.

3185 See end of B. iii.

3186 See end of B. ii.

3187 See end of B. iii.

3188 See end of B. iii.

3189 Ateius, surnamed Prætextatus, and also Philologus, which last name he assumed to indicate his learning, was born at Athens, and was one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter part of the first century B.C. He was originally a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito, by whom he was described as “a rhetorician among grammarians, and a grammarian among rhetoricians.” He was on terms of intimacy with Sallust the historian, and Asinius Pollio. It is supposed that he assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history; but to what extent is not known. But few of his numerous commentaries were extant even in the time of Suetonius.

3190 A native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about B.C. 204. He was trained probably in political knowledge and the military art under Philopœmen, and was sent, as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to answer the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against Perseus. Here, by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of Scipio Africanus, with whom he was present at the destruction of Carthage. His history is one of the most valuable works that has come down to us from antiquity.

3191 Of Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek historians and geographers. He lived about the 65th Olympiad, or B.C. 520. A few fragments, quoted, are all that are left of his historical and geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus extensively availed himself of this writer’s works, though it is equally untrue that he has transcribed whole passages from him, as Porphyrius has ventured to assert.

3192 Of Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He appears to have written numerous geographical and historical works, which, with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are lost.

3193 Of Sigæum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with a few unimportant exceptions, are lost.

3194 See end of B. ii.

3195 See end of B. ii.

3196 A Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work “On Harbours,” in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he composed poetry.

3197 See end of B. ii.

3198 Of Cumæ, or Cymæ, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He studied under Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian. Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of Greece, and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only survive.

3199 A grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopater, and resided at Pergamus, under the patronage of Eumenes II. and Attalus II. In his grammatical system he made a strong distinction between criticism and grammar, the latter of which sciences he regarded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have come down to us.

3200 See end of B. ii.

3201 Of Cyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished at Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Philadelphus had invited him to a place in the Museum. Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception of a few fragments, have all perished. Of his numerous other works in prose, not one is extant in an entire state.

3202 See end of B. ii.

3203 Probably Apollodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by Tzetzes, as also a History of the Parthians, and a History of Pontus.

3204 Probably the author of that name, who wrote the History of Cyzicus, is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenæus both a Babylonian and a Cyzican. His work is entirely lost; but it appears to have been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other ancient writers.

3205 Of Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still survives.

3206 Of Tauromenium, in Sicily; a celebrated historian, who flourished about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of Sicily, from the earliest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his history has been gravely attacked by Polybius; but there is little doubt that it possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other works of Timæus, only a few fragments survive.

3207 A Greek historian; a native of Lesbos. When he lived is unknown. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, has borrowed from him a portion of his account of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the notion that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after they left their original settlement, got the name of πελαργοὶ, or “storks.” He is supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a work called “Historical Paradoxes.”

3208 See end of B. iii.

3209 See end of B. iii.

3210 Of this author nothing whatever seems to be known.

3211 Of Miletus, born B.C. 610. One of the earliest philosophers of the Ionian school, and said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes of Scyros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical treatise in Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to him by Suidas; but, no doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to have contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist.

3212 Of this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that, from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cilicia.

3213 It seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of the authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is not improbable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who lived before the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation of Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the ancients. It is not probable that the author of the Periegesis, or “Description of the World,” is referred to, as that book bears internal marks of having been compiled in the third or fourth century of the Christian era.

3214 Of Miletus. He was the author of the “Milesiaca,” a romance of licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. Cornelius Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term Milesian, as applied to works of fiction.

3215 A Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny, and after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement that Eubœa was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (χαλκὸς) copper being first discovered there.

3216 Probably Menæchmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says that he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander.

3217 When he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have written a History of the Island of Naxos.

3218 He lived after the time of Alexander the Great; but his age is unknown. He wrote a book, περὶ νόστων, on the returns of the Greeks from their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of Alexander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished.

3219 Of Heraclæa, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him, of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and other subjects, were very numerous; but, unfortunately, they are nearly all of them lost. He wrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon the Origin of Cities.

3220 A geographical writer, of whom nothing further is known.

3221 The Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly styled the “Attic Bee.” His principal works are the Anabasis, or the History of the Expedition of the younger Cyrus and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when that of Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362; and the Cyropædia, or Education of Cyrus. The greater portion of his works is now lost.

3222 See end of B. ii.

3223 See end of B. ii.

3224 There were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in Sicily, the other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricum, who, like his namesake, was the author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether Pliny here refers to either of those authors.

3225 A Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. If the same person as the father of the historian Nymphis, he must have lived in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on Islands, and another entitled Χρόνοι, or Chronicles.

3226 A Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of Cyprus.

3227 He is quoted by Strabo, Athenæus, and the Scholiasts; but all that is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, Æolia, Attica, and Arcadia.

3228 He wrote a work relative to Miletus; but nothing further is known of him.

3229 See end of B. ii.

3230 Probably a writer on geography, of whom no particulars are known.

3231 See end of B. ii.

3232 Not reckoning under that appellation the country of Egypt, which was more generally looked upon as forming part of Asia. Josephus informs us that Africa received its name from Ophir, great-grandson of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah.

3233 ‘Castella,’ fortified places, erected for the purpose of defence; not towns formed for the reception of social communities.

3234 The Emperor Caligula, who, in the year 41 A.D., reduced the two Mauritanias to Roman provinces, and had King Ptolemy, the son of Juba, put to death.

3235 Now Cape Spartel. By Scylax it is called Hermæum, and by Ptolemy and Strabo Cote, or Coteis. Pliny means “extreme,” with reference to the sea-line of the Mediterranean, in a direction due west.

3236 Mentioned again by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 6. Lissa was so called, according to Bochart, from the Hebrew or Phœnician word liss, ‘a lion.’ At the present day there is in this vicinity a headland called the ‘Cape of the Lion.’ Bochart thinks that the name ‘Cotta,’ or ‘Cotte,’ was derived from the Hebrew quothef, a ‘vine-dresser.’

3237 The modern Tangier occupies its site. It was said to have derived its name from Tinge, the wife of Antæus, the giant, who was slain by Hercules. His tomb, which formed a hill, in the shape of a man stretched out at full length, was shown near the town of Tingis to a late period. It was also believed, that whenever a portion of the earth covering the body was taken away, it rained until the hole was filled up again. Sertorius is said to have dug away a portion of the hill; but, on discovering a skeleton sixty cubits in length, he was struck with horror, and had it immediately covered again. Procopius says, that the fortress of this place was built by the Canaanites, who were driven by the Jews out of Palestine.

3238 It has been supposed by Salmasius and others of the learned, that Pliny by mistake here attributes to Claudius the formation of a colony which was really established by either Julius Cæsar or Augustus. It is more probable, however, that Claudius, at a later period, ordered it to be called “Traducta Julia,” or “the removed Colony of Julia,” in remembrance of a colony having proceeded thence to Spain in the time of Julius Cæsar. Claudius himself, as stated in the text, established a colony here.

3239 Its ruins are to be seen at Belonia, or Bolonia, three Spanish miles west of the modern Tarifa.

3240 At this point Pliny begins his description of the western side of Africa.

3241 Now Arzilla, in the territory of Fez. Ptolemy places it at the mouth of the river Zileia. It is also mentioned by Strabo and Antoninus.

3242 Now El Araiche, or Larache, on the river Lucos.

3243 Mentioned again in B. ix. c. 4 and c. 5 of the present Book, where Pliny speaks of them as situate elsewhere. The story of Antæus is further enlarged upon by Solinus, B. xxiv.; Lucan, B. iv. l. 589, et seq.; and Martianus Capella, B. vi.

3244 Now the Lucos.

3245 Hardouin is of opinion, that he here has a hit at Gabinius, a Roman author, who, in his Annals of Mauritania, as we learn from Strabo (B. xvii.), inserted numerous marvellous and incredible stories.

3246 When we find Pliny accusing other writers of credulity, we are strongly reminded of the proverb, ‘Clodius accusat mœchos.’

3247 Or the “Julian Colony on the Plains.” Marcus suggests that the word Babba may possibly have been derived from the Hebrew or Phœnician word beab or beaba, “situate in a thick forest.” Poinsinet takes Babba to be the Beni-Tuedi of modern times. D’Anville thinks that it is Naranja.

3248 There is considerable difficulty about the site of Banasa. Moletius thinks that it is the modern Fanfara, or Pefenfia as Marmol calls it. D’Anville suggests that it may be Old Mahmora, on the coast; but, on the other hand, Ptolemy places it among the inland cities, assigning to it a longitude at some distance from the sea. Pliny also appears to make it inland, and makes its distance from Lixos seventy-five miles, while he makes the mouth of the Subur to be fifty miles from the same place.

3249 From both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. According to Poinsinet, Volubilis was the synonym of the African name Fez, signifying a ‘band,’ or ‘swathe.’ Mannert conjectures that it is the same as the modern Walili, or Qualili. D’Anville calls it Guulili, and says that there are some remains of antiquity there.

3250 The modern Subu, or Sebou. D’Anville is of opinion that this river has changed a part of its course since the time of Pliny.

3251 Most probably the modern Sallee stands on its site.

3252 Not in reference to the fact of its existence, but the wonderful stories which were told respecting it.

3253 Like others of the ancient writers, Pliny falls into the error of considering Atlas, not as an extensive chain of mountains, but as an isolated mountain, surrounded by sands. With reference to its height, the whole range declines considerably from west to east; the highest summits in Morocco reaching near 13,000 feet, in Tunis not 5000.

3254 Or “Goat-Pans;” probably another name for the Fauni, or Fauns. More usually, there is but one Ægipan mentioned,—the son, according to Hyginus, of Zeus or Jupiter, and a goat,—or of Zeus and Æga, the wife of Pan. As a foundation for one part of the stories here mentioned, Brotier suggests the fact, that as the Kabyles, or mountain tribes, are in the habit of retiring to their dwellings and reposing during the heat of the day, it would not, consequently, be improbable that they would devote the night to their amusements, lighting up fires, and dancing to the music of drums and cymbals.

3255 Under his name we still possess a “Periplus,” or account of a voyage round a part of Libya. The work was originally written in Punic, but what has come down to us is a Greek translation. We fail, however, to discover any means by which to identify him with any one of the many Carthaginians of the same name. Some writers call him king, and others dux, or imperator of the Carthaginians; from which we may infer, that he held the office of suffetes. This expedition has by some been placed as far back as the time of the Trojan war, or of Hesiod, while others again place it as late as the reign of Agathocles. Falconer, Bougainville, and Gail, place the time of Hanno at about B.C. 570, while other critics identify him with Hanno, the father or son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, B.C. 480. Pliny often makes mention of him; more particularly see B. viii. c. 21.

3256 M. Gosselin thinks that the spot here indicated was at the south-western extremity of the Atlas range, and upon the northern frontier of the Desert of Zahara.

3257 Supposed by some geographers to be the same as that now called the Ommirabih, or the Om-Rabya. This is also thought by some to have been the same river as is called by Pliny, in p. 381, by the name of Asana; but the distances do not agree.

3258 Supposed by Gosselin to be the present bay of Al-cazar, on the African coast, in the Straits of Cadiz; though Hardouin takes it to be the κόλπος ἐμπορικὸς, or “Gulf of Commerce,” of Strabo and Ptolemy. By first quoting from one, and then at a tangent from another, Pliny involves this subject in almost inextricable confusion.

3259 Probably the place called Thymiaterion in the Periplus of Hanno.

3260 The present Subu, and the river probably of Sallce, previously mentioned.

3261 The modern Mazagan, according to Gosselin.

3262 Cape Cantin, according to Gosselin; Cape Blanco, according to Marcus.

3263 Probably the Safi, Asafi, or Saffee of the present day.

3264 The river Tensift, which runs close to the city of Morocco, in the interior.

3265 The river Mogador of the present day.

3266 The modern river Sus, or Sous.

3267 The learned Gosselin has aptly remarked, that this cannot be other than an error, and that “ninety-six” is the correct reading, the Gulf of Sainte-Croix being evidently the one here referred to.

3268 Mount Barce seems to be here a name for the Atlas, or Daran chain.

3269 Supposed by Gosselin to be the present Cape Ger.

3270 The river Assa, according to Gosselin. There is also a river Suse placed here in the maps.

3271 These two tribes probably dwelt between the modern Capes Ger and Non.

3272 Marcus believes these to have been the ancestors of the present race of the Touaricks, while the Melanogætuli were the progenitors of the Tibbos, of a darker complexion, and more nearly resembling the negroes in bodily conformation.

3273 Supposed by Gosselin to be the present river Nun, or Non. According to Bochart, this river received its name from the Hebrew or Phœnician word behemoth or bamoth, the name by which Job (xl. 15) calls the crocodile [or rather the hippopotamus]. Bochart, however, with Mannert, Bougainville, De Rennet, and De Heeren, is of opinion, that by this name the modern river Senegal is meant. Marcus is of opinion that it is either the Non or the modern Sobi.

3274 Marcus here observes, that from Cape Alfach, below Cape Non, there are no mountains, but continual wastes of sand, bordering on the sea-shore. Indeed there is no headland, of any considerable height, between Cape Sobi and Cape Bajador.

3275 “The Chariot of the Gods.” Marcus is of opinion that it is the modern Cape Verde; while, on the other hand, Gosselin takes it to be Cape Non. Brotier calls it Cape Ledo.

3276 In B. vi. c. 36, Pliny speaks of this promontory as the “Hesperian Horn,” and says that it is but four days’ sail from the Theon Ochema. Brotier identifies this promontory with the modern Cape Roxo. Marcus is of opinion that it was the same as Cape Non; but there is considerable difficulty in determining its identity.

3277 Alluding to Polybius; though, according to the reading which Sillig has adopted a few lines previously, Agrippa is the last author mentioned. Pliny has here mistaken the meaning of Polybius, who has placed Atlas midway between Carthage, from which he had set out, and the Promontory of Theon Ochema, which he reached.

3278 Ptolemy the son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, was summoned to Rome in the year A.D. 40, by Caligula, and shortly after put to death by him, his riches having excited the emperor’s cupidity. Previously to this, he had been on terms of strict alliance with the Roman people, who had decreed him a toga picta and a sceptre, as a mark of their friendship.

3279 Ivory and citron-wood, or cedar, were used for the making and inlaying of the tables used by the Roman nobility. See B. xiii. c. 23.

3280 Supposed by some geographers to be the modern Wadi-Tensift. It has been also confounded with the Anatis (see note 3171, p. 369); while others again identify it with the Anidus. It is more commonly spelt ‘Asama.’

3281 Or Phuth. It does not appear to have been identified.

3282 The range is still called by the name of Daran.

3283 The same general who afterwards conquered the Britons under Boadicea or Bonduca. While Proprætor in Mauritania under the Emperor Claudius, in the year A.D. 42, he defeated the Mauri who had risen in revolt, and advanced, as Pliny here states, as far as Mount Atlas. It is not known from what point Paulinus made his advance towards the Atlas range. Mannert and Marcus are of opinion that he set out from Sala, the modern Sallee, while Latreille, Malte Brun, and Walkenaer think that his point of departure was the mouth of the river Lixos. Sala was the most southerly town on the western coast of Africa that in the time of Pliny had submitted to the Roman arms.

3284 Some of the editions read ‘Niger’ here. Marcus suggests that that river may have been called ‘Niger’ by the Phœnician or Punic colonists of the western Mauritania, and ‘Ger’ or ‘Gar’ in another quarter. The same writer also suggests that the Sigilmessa was the river to which Paulinus penetrated on his march beyond Atlas.

3285 The Sigilmessa, according to Marmol, flows between several mountains which appear to be of a blackish hue.

3286 Bocchus however, the kinsman of Massinissa, had previously for some time reigned over both the Mauritanias, consisting of Mauritania Tingitana and Mauritania Cæsariana.

3287 See B. xxv. c. 7. 12, and B. xxvi. c. 8.

3288 Extending from the sea to the river Moluga, now called the Molucha and Molochath, or Malva and Malvana.

3289 From whom the Moors of the present day take their name. Marcus observes here, that though Pliny distinguishes the Mauri from the Gætuli, they essentially belonged to the same race and spoke the same language, the so-called Berber, and its dialects, the Schellou and the Schoviah.

3290 ‘Maurusii’ was the Greek name, ‘Mauri’ the Latin, for this people. Marcus suggests that Mauri was a synonym only for the Greek word nomades, ‘wanderers.’

3291 As Marcus observes, Pliny is here greatly in error. On the inroads of Paulinus, the Mauri had retreated into the interior and taken refuge in the deserts of Zahara, whence they had again emerged in the time of the geographer Ptolemy.

3292 From the time of the second Punic War this people had remained in undisputed possession of the country situate between the rivers Molochath or Moluga and Ampsaga, which formed the Cæsarian Mauritania. Ptolemy speaks of finding some remains of them at Siga, a town situate on a river of the same name, and at which King Syphax had formerly resided.

3293 While Pomponius Mela does not make any difference between the Mauri and the Gætuli, Pliny here speaks of them as being essentially different.

3294 Derived, according to Marcus, from the Arabic compound bani-our, ‘child of nakedness,’ as equivalent to the Greek word gymnetes, by which name Pliny and other ancient writers designate the wandering naked races of Western Africa.

3295 The Autololes or, as Ptolemy calls them, the Autololæ, dwelt, it is supposed, on the western coast of Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape Ger. Their city of Autolala or Autolalæ is one of Ptolemy’s points of astronomical observation, having the longest day thirteen hours and a half, being distant three hours and a half west of Alexandria, and having the sun vertical once a year, at the time of the winter solstice. Reichard takes it for the modern Agulon or Aquilon.

3296 The Æthiopian Daratitæ, Marcus says.

3297 The present Ceuta.

3298 They were so called from the circumstance, Marcus says, of their peaks being so numerous, and so strongly resembling each other. They are now called, according to D’Anville, ‘Gebel Mousa,’ which means “the Mountain of Apes,” an animal by which they are now much frequented, instead of by elephants as in Pliny’s time.

3299 Or Mediterranean.

3300 The modern Bedia, according to Olivarius, the Tasanel, according to Dupinet, and the Alamos or Kerkal, according to Ansart. Marcus says that it is called the Setuan, and is the largest stream on the northern shores of Western Africa.

3301 The modern Gomera according to Hardouin, the Nocor according to Mannert.

3302 The modern Melilla most probably.

3303 The modern Maluia. Antoninus calls it Malva, and Ptolemy Maloua.

3304 Its site is occupied by the modern Aresgol, according to Mariana, Guardia or Sereni according to Dupinet, Ned-Roma according to Mannert and D’Anville, and Tachumbrit according to Shaw. Marcus is inclined to be of the same opinion as the last-mentioned geographer.

3305 Now the city of Malaga.

3306 Mauritania Cæsariensis, or Cæsarian Mauritania, now forming the French province of Algiers.

3307 “Bogudiana;” from Bogud or Bogoas. The last king Bogud was deprived of his kingdom by Bocchus, king of Mauritania Cæsariensis, a warm partisan of Cæsar.

3308 Or the “Great Harbour,” now Arzeu according to D’Anville, and Mars-el-Kebir according to Marcus.

3309 The same river probably as the Malva or Malvana previously mentioned, the word mulucha or malacha coming from the Greek μολόχη, “a marsh mallow,” which malva, as a Latin word, also signifies. See p. 383.

3310 From the Greek word ξένος, “a stranger.” Pomponius Mela and Antoninus call this place Guiza, and Ptolemy Quisa. D’Anville places it on the right side of the river Malvana or Mulucha, and Shaw says that it was situate in the vicinity of the modern town of Oran.

3311 Now Marz-Agolet, or situate in its vicinity, according to Hardouin and Ansart, and the present Arzen, according to Marcus, where numerous remains of antiquity are found.

3312 Now Tenez, according to D’Anville, and Mesgraïm, according to Mannert; with which last opinion Marcus agrees.

3313 Ptolemy and Antoninus place this colony to the east of the Promontory of Apollo, and not the west as Pliny does.

3314 The present Cape Mestagan.

3315 According to Dupinet and Mannert, the modern Tenez occupies its site, Zershell according to Hardouin and Shaw, Vacur according to D’Anville and Ansart, and Algiers according to others. It is suggested by Marcus that the name Iol is derived from the Arabic verb galla, “to be noble” or “famous.” There is no doubt that the magnificent ruins at Zershell are those of Iol, and that its name is an abbreviation of Cæsarea Iol.

3316 Or New Town.

3317 Scylax calls it Thapsus; Ammianus Marcellinus, Tiposa. According to Mannert it was situate in the vicinity of the modern Damas.

3318 Or Icosium. It has been identified by inscriptions discovered by the French as standing on the same site as the modern Algiers. D’Anville, Mannert and others identify it with Scherchell or Zershell, thus placing it too far west. Mannert was evidently misled by an error in the Antonine Itinerary, whereby all the places along this coast are, for a considerable distance, thrown too far to the west; the researches however which followed the French conquest of the country have revealed inscriptions which completely set the question at rest.

3319 According to Mannert, this was situate on the modern Cape Arbatel. Marcus thinks that the Hebrew ros, or Arab ras, “a rock,” enters into the composition of the word.

3320 Now Hur according to D’Anville, Colcah according to Mannert.

3321 The modern Acor, according to Marcus.

3322 The modern Pedeles or Delys, according to Ortellius and Mannert, Tedles according to D’Anville.

3323 The modern Jigeli or Gigeri. It was probably in ancient times the emporium of the surrounding country.

3324 Destroyed, according to Hardouin, and probably by the incursions of the sea. At the mouth of the Ampsaga (now called the Wad-El-Kebir or Sufjimar, and higher up the Wadi Roumel) there is situate a small sea-port called Marsa Zeitoun.

3325 Near the present Mazuaa, according to Mannert.

3326 The modern Burgh, according to D’Anville and Mannert, but more probably considerably to the east of that place.

3327 The modern El-Herba, according to Mannert.

3328 Marcus suggests that this is the Chinalaph of Ptolemy, and probably the modern Schellif.

3329 The same that is called Savis by Ptolemy, who places Icosium on its banks.

3330 By Mela called the Vabar. Marcus supposes it to be the same as the modern Giffer.

3331 By Ptolemy called the Sisar; the Ajebbi of modern geographers, which falls into the Mediterranean, near the city of Budja.

3332 Brotier says that this reading is incorrect, and that 222 is the proper one, that being the true distance between the river Ampsaga or Wad-el-Kebir and the city of Cæsarea, the modern Zershell.

3333 It was not only Numidia that bore this name, but all the northern coast of Africa from the frontiers of the kingdom of Carthage near Hippo Regius to the Columns of Hercules. It was thus called from the Greek metagonos, a “descendant” or “successor;” as the Carthaginians established a number of small towns and villages on the coast, which were thus posterior in their origin to the large cities already founded there.

3334 Hardouin says that the Moors in the interior still follow the same usage, carrying their houses from pasture to pasture on waggons.

3335 Now Chollum or Collo.

3336 The modern Sgigada or Stora, according to Mannert, D’Anville, and Shaw.

3337 The modern Constantina occupies its site. Numerous remains of the ancient town are still discovered. Sitius was an officer who served under Cæsar, and obtained a grant of this place after the defeat of Juba.

3338 Called Urbs, or Kaff, according to D’Anville and Shaw; the latter of whom found an inscription there with the words Ordo Siccensium.

3339 Or ‘Royal Bulla’; which epithet shows that it was either a residence or a foundation of the kings of Numidia, and distinguishes it from a small place called Bulla Mensa, south of Carthage. Bulla Regia was four days’ journey south-west of Carthage, on a tributary of the river Bagrada, the valley of which is still called Wad-el-Boul. This place was one of the points of Ptolemy’s recorded astronomical observations, having its longest day fourteen hours and one-eighth, and being distant from Alexandria two hours to the west.

3340 The modern Tamseh, according to Shaw and Mannert, and Tagodet, according to D’Anville.

3341 Its ruins are south of the modern Bona. It received the name of Regius or ‘Royal’ from being the residence of the Numidian kings. It was also famed as being the see of St. Augustine. It was a colony of Tyre, and stood on the bay now forming the Gulf of Bona. It was one of the most flourishing cities of Africa till it was destroyed by the Vandals A.D. 430.

3342 Now the Mafragg, according to Mannert.

3343 Still called Tabarca, according to Hardouin.

3344 Now the Zaina, according to Marcus.

3345 For the character of the Numidian marble, see Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 7.

3346 Extending from the river Tusca, or Zaina, to the northern frontiers of Byzacium. It corresponds with the Turkish province or beylik of Tunis.

3347 He says this not only to distinguish it from Africa, considered as one-third of the globe, but also in contradistinction to the proconsular province of the Roman empire of the same name, which contained not only the province of Zeugitana, but also those of Numidia, Byzacium, and Tripolis.

3348 Candidum: now Ras-el-Abiad.

3349 The references to this headland identify it with Cape Farina, or Ras Sidi Ali-al-Mekhi, and not, as some have thought, the more westerly Cape Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou-Shoushe. Shaw however applies the name of Zibeeb to the former.

3350 Now Cape Bon, or Ras-Addar.

3351 More properly called Hippo Diarrhytus or Zaritus, a Tyrian colony, situate on a large lake which communicated with the sea, and received the waters of another lake. Its situation exposed it to frequent inundations, whence, as the Greeks used to state, the epithet διάῤῥυτος. It seems more probable however that this is the remnant of some Phœnician title, as the ancients were not agreed on the true form of the name, and of this uncertainty we have a further proof in the Hippo Dirutus of our author.

3352 This is placed by Ptolemy to the south-east of Hippo, and near the southern extremity of Lake Sisar.

3353 This important city stood on the north part of the Carthaginian Gulf, west of the mouth of the Bagrada, and twenty-seven Roman miles N.W. of Carthage; but the site of its ruins at the modern Bou-Shater is now inland, in consequence of the changes made by the Bagrada in the coast-line. In the Third Punic war Utica took part with the Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greater part of the Carthaginian territory.

3354 Now called the Mejerdah, and though of very inconsiderable size, the chief river of the Carthaginian territory. The main stream is formed by the union of two branches, the southern of which, the ancient Bagrada, is now called the Mellig, and in its upper course the Meskianah. The other branch is called the Hamiz.

3355 Or the “Cornelian Camp.” The spot where Cornelius Scipio Africanus the Elder first encamped, on landing in Africa, B.C. 204. Cæsar describes this spot, in his description of Curio’s operations against Utica, B. C. b. ii. c. 24, 25. This spot is now called Ghellah.

3356 This colony was first established by Caius Gracchus, who sent 6000 settlers to found on the site of Carthage the new city of Junonia. The Roman senate afterwards annulled this with the other acts of Gracchus. Under Augustus however the new city of Carthage was founded, which, when Strabo wrote, was as prosperous as any city in Africa. It was made, in place of Utica, which had favoured the Pompeian party, the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa. It stood on the peninsula terminated by Ras-Sidi-Bou-Said, Cape Carthage or Carthagena. As Gibbon has remarked, “The place might be unknown if some broken arches of an aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive traveller.”

3357 The original city of Carthage was called ‘Carthago Magna’ to distinguish it from New Carthage and Old Carthage, colonies in Spain.

3358 Now Rhades, according to Marcus.

3359 Marcus identifies it with the modern Gurtos.

3360 By the Greeks called ‘Aspis.’ It derived its Greek and Roman names from its site on a hill of a shield-like shape. It was built by Agathocles, the Sicilian, B.C. 310. In the first Punic war it was the landing-place of Manlius and Regulus, whose first action was to take it, B.C. 256. Its site is still known as Kalebiah, and its ruins are peculiarly interesting. The site of Misua is occupied by Sidi-Doud, according to Shaw and D’Anville.

3361 Shaw informs us that an inscription found on the spot designates this place as a colony, not a free city or town. Its present name is Kurbah.

3362 The present Nabal, according to D’Anville.

3363 Zeugitana extended from the river Tusca to Horrea-Cælia, and Byzacium from this last place to Thenæ.

3364 As sprung partly from the Phœnician immigrants, and partly from the native Libyans or Africans.

3365 Pliny says, B. xvii. c. 3, “A hundred and fifty fold.” From Shaw we learn that this fertility no longer exists, the fields producing not more than eight- or at most twelve-fold.

3366 The modern Lempta occupies its site.

3367 Originally a Phœnician colony, older than Carthage. It was the capital of Byzacium, and stood within the southern extremity of the Sinus Neapolitanus or Gulf of Hammamet. Trajan made it a colony, under the high-sounding name, as we gather from inscriptions, of Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetana, or, as set forth on coins, Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetana Pia. The epithet Frugifera refers to the fact that it was one of the chief sea-ports for the corn-producing country of Byzacium. It was destroyed by the Vandals, but restored by the Emperor Justinian under the name of Justiniana or Justinianopolis. The modern Sousa stands on its site; and but slight traces of the ancient city are to be found.

3368 Situate in the vicinity of the modern Monastir.

3369 Shaw discovered its ruins at the modern town of Demas.

3370 Now Taineh, according to D’Anville. This place formed the boundary between the proconsular province of Africa and the territory of the Numidian king Masinissa and his descendants.

3371 The present Mahometa, according to Marcus, El Mahres according to D’Anville.

3372 Now Cabès, according to D’Anville, giving name to the Gulf of Cabès. Marcus calls it Gaps.

3373 Now Tripoli Vecchio; also called Sabart according to D’Anville.

3374 Scipio Æmilianus, the son-in-law of Æmilius Paulus.

3375 Micipsa, the son of Masinissa, and his two legitimate brethren. Scipio having been left by Masinissa executor of his will, the sovereign power was divided by him between Micipsa and his two brethren Gulussa and Mastanabal. On this occasion also he separated Numidia from Zeugitana and Byzacium, by a long dyke drawn from Thenæ, due south, to the borders of the Great Desert, and thence in a north-westerly direction to the river Tusca.

3376 The Syrtes or ‘Quicksands’ are now called, the Lesser Syrtes the Gulf of Cabès, and the Greater the Gulf of Sydra. The country situate between the two Syrtes is called Tripoli, formerly Tripolis, a name which, according to Solinus, it owed to its three cities, Sabrata, Leptis, and Œa.

3377 Marcus observes with reference to this passage, that both Hardouin and Poinsinet have mistaken its meaning. They evidently think that Pliny is speaking here of a route to the Syrtes leading from the interior of Africa, whereas it is pretty clear that he is speaking of the dangers which attend those who approach it by the line of the sea-coast, as Cato did, on his march to Utica, so beautifully described by Lucan in his Ninth Book. This is no doubt the same route which was taken by the caravans on their passage from Lebida, the ancient Leptis, to Berenice in Cyrenaica.

3378 Those which we find at the middle of the coast bordering upon the Greater Syrtis, and which separate the mountains of Fezzan and Atlas from Cyrenaica and Barca.

3379 In its widest sense this name is applied to all the Libyan tribes inhabiting the Oases on the eastern part of the Great Desert, as the Gætulians inhabited its western part, the boundary between the two nations being drawn at the sources of the Bagrada and the mountain Usargala. In the stricter sense however, and in which the term must be here understood, the name ‘Garamantes’ denoted the people of Phazania, the modern Fezzan, which forms by far the largest oasis in the Grand Desert of Zahara.

3380 Augylæ, now Aujelah, was an oasis in the desert of Barca, in the region of Cyrenaica, about 3^1⁄2° south of Cyrene. It has been remarked that Pliny, here and in the Eighth Chapter of the present Book, in abridging the account given by Herodotus of the tribes of Northern Africa, has transferred to the Augylæ what that author really says of the Nasamones. This oasis forms one of the chief stations on the caravan route from Cairo to Fezzan. It is placed by Rennell in 30° 3′ North Lat. and 22° 46′ East Long., 180 miles south-east of Barca, 180 west by north of Siwah, the ancient Ammonium, and 426 east by north of Mourzouk. Later authorities, however, place the village of Aujelah in 29° 15′ North Lat. and 21° 55′ East Long.

3381 For an account of the Psylli see B. vii. c. 2. They probably dwelt in the vicinity of the modern Cape Mesurata.

3382 Now Lake Lynxama, according to Marcus.

3383 Marcus observes that in order properly to understand this passage we must remember that the ancients considered Africa as terminating north of the Equator, and imagined that from the Straits of Hercules the western coast of Africa ran, not towards the south-west, but slanted in a south-easterly direction to the Straits of Babelmandel.

3384 The modern Tripoli.

3385 A flourishing city with a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians. It was at this place that Apuleius made his eloquent and ingenious defence against the charge of sorcery brought against him by his step-sons. According to some writers the modern Tripoli is built on its site, while other accounts make it to have been situate six leagues from that city.

3386 Now called the Wady-el-Quaham.

3387 Mannert is of opinion that this was only another name for the city of Leptis Magna or the “Greater Leptis” here mentioned by Pliny. There is little doubt that his supposition is correct.

3388 The more common reading is Taphra or Taphara. D’Anville identifies it with the town of Sfakes.

3389 Scylax identifies it with Neapolis or Leptis, and it is generally looked upon as being the same place as Sabrata or Old Tripoli.

3390 Now called Lebida. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Septimius Severus. It was almost destroyed by an attack from a Libyan tribe A.D. 366, and its ruin was completed by the invasion of the Arabs. Its ruins are considerable.

3391 “Men of sea complexion,” is the meaning of this Greek name. According to Marcus they dwelt between the Greater Leptis and the Lake Tritonis, at the present day called Schibkah-el-Loudeah. For a further account of the Lotophagi, see B. xiii. c. 32.

3392 Two brothers, citizens of Carthage, who in a dispute as to their respective territories with the people of Cyrene, submitted to be buried alive in the sand, at the boundary-line between the two countries. Sallust (Jugurthine War) is the main authority for the story. It is also related by Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 7, and Valerius Maximus, B. v. c. 6, but from the Greek name of the brothers, meaning “lovers of praise,” it is doubtful whether the story is not of spurious origin.

3393 The Lake Tritonis mentioned in note 3391, p. 393.

3394 Now called El Hammah, according to Shaw.

3395 According to some accounts the goddess Pallas or Minerva was born on the banks of Lake Tritonis.

3396 The modern Cape of Tajuni.

3397 Now called Udina, according to Marcus.

3398 Now called Tabersole, according to Marcus.

3399 In the north of Byzacium, near the Bagrada and the confines of Numidia. It was the station of a Roman garrison, and considerable remains of it are still visible near the modern Zanfour.

3400 Called Cannopissæ by Ptolemy, who places it to the east of Tabraca.

3401 There is great doubt as to the correct orthography of these places, most of which can be no longer identified.

3402 According to Marcus the present Porto Tarina.

3403 Also called Achilla and Achulla, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern El Aliah. It stood on the sea-coast of Byzacium, a little above the northern extremity of the Lesser Syrtis. It was a colony from the island of Melita, now Malta.

3404 Now called El-Jemma, according to Marcus.

3405 From it modern Tunis takes its name.

3406 The birth-place of St. Augustin. It was to the north-west of Hippo Regius.

3407 In the vicinity of this place, if it is the same as the Tigisis mentioned by Procopius, there were two columns to be seen in his day, upon which was written in the Phœnician language, “We fled from before the robber, Joshua the son of Nun.”

3408 There were two towns of this name in the proconsular province of Africa. The first was situate in the country of Zeugitana, five days’ journey west of Carthage, and it was here that Scipio defeated Hannibal. The other bore the surname of Regia or Royal, from being the frequent residence of the Numidian kings. It lay in the interior, and at the present day its site bears the name of ‘Zowarin’ or ‘Zewarin.’

3409 The ruins of Capsa still bear the name of Cafsa or Ghafsah. It was an important city in the extreme south of Numidia, situate in an oasis, in the midst of an arid desert abounding in serpents. In the Jugurthine war it was the treasury of Jugurtha, and was taken and destroyed by Marius; but was afterwards rebuilt and made a colony.

3410 They dwelt between the river Ampsaga or Wady-El-Kebir and the Tusca or Wady-Zain, the western boundary of the Carthaginian territory.

3411 Dwelling to the east of the mountain Zalycus, now known as the Wanashrise, according to Shaw.

3412 The ancients called by the name of ‘Gætulians’ all the people of Africa who dwelt south of the Mauritanias and Numidia, as far as the line which, according to their ideas, separated Africa from Æthiopia.

3413 The Quorra most probably of modern geographers.

3414 So called, as mentioned below, from its five principal cities.

3415 Where Jupiter Ammon or Hammon was worshiped under the form of a ram, the form he was said to have assumed when the deities were dispersed in the war with the Giants. Ancient Ammonium is the present oasis of Siwah in the Libyan Desert.

3416 The same that has been already mentioned in B. ii. c. 106. It is mentioned by Herodotus and Pomponius Mela.

3417 Previously called Hesperis or Hesperides. It was the most westerly city of Cyrenaica, and stood just beyond the eastern extremity of the Greater Syrtis, on a promontory called Pseudopenias, and near the river Lethon. Its historical importance only dates from the times of the Ptolemies, when it was named Berenice, after the wife of Ptolemy III. or Euergetes. Having been greatly reduced, it was fortified anew by the Emperor Justinian. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Ben Ghazi.

3418 So called from Arsinoë, the sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Its earlier name was Taucheira or Teucheira, which name, according to Marcus, it still retains.

3419 Its ruins may still be seen at Tolmeita or Tolometa. It was situate on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, and originally bore the name of Barca. From which of the Ptolemies it took its name is not known. Its splendid ruins are not less than four miles in circumference.

3420 Its ruins are still to be seen, bespeaking its former splendour, at the modern Marsa Sousah. It was originally only the port of Cyrene, but under the Ptolemies it flourished to such an extent as to eclipse that city. It is pretty certain that it was the Sozusa of the later Greek writers. Eratosthenes was a native of this place.

3421 The chief city of Cyrenaica, and the most important Hellenic colony in Africa, the early settlers having extensively intermarried with wives of Libyan parentage. In its most prosperous times it maintained an extensive commerce with Greece and Egypt, especially in silphium or assafœtida, the plantations of which, as mentioned in the present chapter, extended for miles in its vicinity. Great quantities of this plant were also exported to Capua in Southern Italy, where it was extensively employed in the manufacture of perfumes. The scene of the ‘Rudens,’ the most picturesque (if we may use the term) of the plays of Plautus, is laid in the vicinity of Cyrene, and frequent reference is made in it to the extensive cultivation of silphium; a head of which plant also appears on the coins of the place. The philosophers Aristippus and Carneades were born here, as also the poet Callimachus. Its ruins, at the modern Ghrennah, are very extensive, and are indicative of its former splendour.

3422 In C. 1 of the present Book. It was only the poetical fancy of the Greeks that found the fabled gardens of the Hesperides in the fertile regions of Cyrenaica. Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens and the lake of the Hesperides in this vicinity, where we also find a people called Hesperidæ, or, as Herodotus names them, Euesperidæ. It was probably in consequence of this similarity of name, in a great degree, that the gardens of the Hesperides were assigned to this locality.

3423 Now called Ras-Sem or Ras-El-Kazat. It is situate a little to the west of Apollonia and N.W. of Cyrene.

3424 According to Ansart, 264 miles is the real distance between Capes Ras-Sem and Tænarum or Matapan

3425 As already mentioned, Apollonia formed the harbour of Cyrene.

3426 This was called the Chersonesus Magna, being so named in contradistinction to the Chersonesus Parva, on the coast of Egypt, about thirty-five miles west of Alexandria. It is now called Ras-El-Tin, or more commonly Raxatin.

3427 So called from the peculiar features of the locality, the Greek word καταβαθμὸς, signifying “a descent.” A deep valley, bounded east and west by ranges of high hills, runs from this spot to the frontiers of Egypt. It is again mentioned by Pliny at the end of the present Chapter. The spot is still known by a similar name, being called Marsa Sollern, or the “Port of the Ladder.” In earlier times the Egyptian territory ended at the Gulf of Plinthinethes, now Lago Segio, and did not extend so far as Catabathmos.

3428 This name was unknown to Herodotus. As Marcus observes, it was probably of Phœnician origin, signifying “leading a wandering life,” like the term “nomad,” derived from the Greek.

3429 Now called El Bareton or Marsa-Labeit. This city was of considerable importance, and belonged properly to Marmaria, but was included politically in the Nomos Libya of Egypt. It stood near the promontory of Artos or Pythis, now Ras-El-Hazeit.

3430 So called from the words Matâ-Ammon, “the tribe of Ammon,” according to Bochart. The Nasamones were a powerful but savage people of Libya, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Greater Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by the Romans.

3431 From μεσὸς “the middle,” and ἄμμος “sand.”

3432 See note 3421 in p. 396.

3433 Herodotus places this nation to the west of the Nasamones and on the river Cinyps, now called the Wadi-Quaham.

3434 In most of the editions they are called ‘Hammanientes.’ It has been suggested that they were so called from the Greek word ἄμμος “sand.”

3435 This story he borrows from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 158.

3436 From the Greek word τρωγλοδύται, “dwellers in caves.” Pliny has used the term already (B. iv. c. 25) in reference to the nations on the banks of the Danube. It was a general name applied by the Greek geographers to various uncivilized races who had no abodes but caves, and more especially to the inhabitants of the western coasts of the Red Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt and Æthiopia.

3437 At the beginning of C. 4.

3438 Which gives name to the modern Fezzan.

3439 Now called Tanet-Mellulen, or the station of Mellulen, on the route from Gadamez to Oserona.

3440 Zaouila or Zala, half way between Augyla and Mourzouk.

3441 Now Gadamez, which, according to Marcus, is situate almost under the same meridian as Old Tripoli, the ancient Sabrata.

3442 According to Marcus this range still bears the name of Gibel-Assoud, which in the Arabic language means the “Black Mountain.”

3443 In a southerly direction. He alludes probably to the Desert of Bildulgerid.

3444 This spring is also mentioned by Pliny in B. ii. c. 106. Marcus suggests that the Debris of Pliny is the same as the Bedir of Ptolemy. He also remarks that the English traveller Oudney discovered caverns hewn out of the sides of the hills, evidently for the purposes of habitation, but of which the use is not known by the present people. These he considers to have been the abodes of the ancient Troglodytæ or “cave-dwellers.” In the Tibesti range of mountains, however, we find a race called the Rock Tibboos, from the circumstance of their dwelling in caves.

3445 Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the Younger, who, upon his victories over the Garamantes, obtained a triumph in the year B.C. 19.

3446 L. Cornelius Balbus the Elder, also a native of Gades. He obtained the consulship in B.C. 40, the first instance, as we find mentioned by Pliny, B. vii. c. 44, in which this honour had been conferred upon one who was not a Roman citizen.

3447 On the occasion of a triumph by a Roman general, boards were carried aloft on “fercula,” on which were painted in large letters the names of vanquished nations and countries. Here too models were exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Marcus is of opinion that the names of the places here mentioned do not succeed in any geographical order, but solely according to their presumed importance as forming part of the conquest of Balbus. He also thinks that Balbus did not penetrate beyond the fifteenth degree of north latitude, and that his conquests did not extend so far south as the banks of Lake Tchad.

3448 The site of Garama still bears the name of ‘Gherma,’ and presents very considerable remains of antiquity. It is four days’ journey north of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan.

3449 Now Tibesti, according to Marcus.

3450 Marcus suggests that this is probably the Febabo of modern geographers, to the N.E. of Belma and Tibesti.

3451 Discera was the Im-Zerah of modern travellers, on the road from Sockna to Mourzouk, according to Marcus, who is of opinion that the places which follow were situate at the east and north-east of Thuben and the Black Mountain.

3452 Om-El-Abid, to the N.W. of Garama or Gherma, according to Marcus, and Oudney the traveller.

3453 The same, Marcus thinks, as the modern Tessava in Fezzan.

3454 Marcus suggests that this may be the modern Sana.

3455 The town of Winega mentioned by Oudney, was probably the ancient Pega, according to Marcus.

3456 The modern Missolat, according to Marcus, on the route from Tripoli to Murmuck.

3457 According to Marcus, this was the Mount Goriano of the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, where, confirming the statement here made by Pliny, they found quartz, jasper, onyx, agates, and cornelians.

3458 Mentioned by Tacitus, B. iv. c. 50. The town of Œa has been alluded to by Pliny in C. 4.

3459 “Past the head of the rock.” Marcus suggests that this is the Gibel-Gelat or Rock of Gelat spoken of by the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, forming a portion of the chain of Guriano or Gyr. He says, that at the foot of this mountain travellers have to pass from Old and New Tripoli on their road to Missolat, the Maxala of Pliny, and thence to Gerama or Gherma, the ancient capital of Fezzan.

3460 As Marcus observes, this would not make it to extend so far south as the sixteenth degree of north latitude.

3461 The Mareotis of the time of the Ptolemies extended from Alexandria to the Gulf of Plinthinethes; and Libya was properly that portion of territory which extended from that Gulf to Catabathmos. Pliny is in error here in confounding the two appellations, or rather, blending them into one. It includes the eastern portion of the modern Barca, and the western division of Lower Egypt. It most probably received its name from the Lake Mareotis, and not the lake from it.

3462 This was a seaport town on the northern coast of Africa, probably about eleven or twelve miles west of Parætonium, sometimes spoken of as belonging to Egypt, sometimes to Marmorica. Scylax places it at the western boundary of Egypt, on the frontier of the Marmaridæ. Ptolemy, like Pliny, speaks of it as being in the Libyan Nomos. The distances given in the MSS. of Pliny of this place from Parætonium are seventy-two, sixty-two, and twelve miles; the latter is probably the correct reading, as Strabo, B. xvii., makes the distance 100 stadia. It is extremely doubtful whether the Apis mentioned by Herodotus, B. ii. c. 18, can be the same place: but there is little doubt, from the words of Pliny here, that it was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian god Apis, who was represented under the form of a bull.

3463 Now called Zerbi and Jerba, derived from the name of Girba, which even in the time of Aurelius Victor, had supplanted that of Meninx. It is situate in the Gulf of Cabes. According to Solinus, C. Marius lay in concealment here for some time. It was famous for its purple. See B. ix. c. 60.

3464 Now called Kerkéni, Karkenah, or Ramlah.

3465 Now Gherba. It was reckoned as a mere appendage to Cercina, to which it was joined by a mole, and which is found often mentioned in history.

3466 Still called Lampedusa, off the coast of Tunis. This island, with Gaulos and Galata, has been already mentioned among the islands off Sicily; see B. iii. c. 14.

3467 Now Pantellaria. See B. iii. c. 14.

3468 A lofty island surrounded by dangerous cliffs, now called Zowamour or Zembra.

3469 In the former editions the word “Aræ” is taken to refer to the Ægimuri, as meaning the same islands. Sillig is however of opinion that totally distinct groups are meant, and punctuates accordingly. The “Aræ” were probably mere rocks lying out at sea, which received their name from their fancied resemblance to altars. They are mentioned by Virgil in the Æneid, B. i. l. 113, upon which lines Servius says, that they were so called because there the Romans and the people of Africa on one occasion made a treaty.

3470 The greater portion of this Chapter is extracted almost verbatim from the account given by Mela. Ptolemy seems to place the Liby-Egyptians to the south of the Greater and Lesser Oasis, on the route thence to Darfour.

3471 Or “White Æthiopians,” men though of dark complexion, not negroes. Marcus is of opinion that the words “intervenientibus desertis” refer to the tract of desert country lying between the Leucæthiopians and the Liby-Egyptians, and not to that between the Gætulians on the one hand and the Liby-Egyptians and the Leucæthiopians on the other.

3472 Meaning to the south and the south-east of these three nations, according to Marcus. Rennel takes the Leucæthiopians to be the present Mandingos of higher Senegambia: Marcus however thinks that they are the Azanaghis, who dwell on the edge of the Great Desert, and are not of so black a complexion as the Mandingos.

3473 Probably the people of the present Nigritia or Soudan.

3474 Marcus is of opinion that Pliny does not here refer to the Joliba of Park and other travellers, as other commentators have supposed; but that he speaks of the river called Zis by the modern geographers, and which Jackson speaks of as flowing from the south-east towards north-west. The whole subject of the Niger is however enwrapped in almost impenetrable obscurity, and as the most recent inquirers have not come to any conclusion on the subject, it would be little more than a waste of time and space to enter upon an investigation of the notions which Pliny and Mela entertained on the subject.

3475 From γυμνὸς, “naked.”

3476 Mentioned in C. 1 of the present Book.

3477 He refers to the words in the Odyssey, B. i. l. 23, 24.—

Αἰθίοπας τοὶ δίχθα δεδαιάται, ἔσχατοι ἄνδρων·

Οἱ μὲν δυσομένου Ὑπερίονος, οἱ δ’ ἀνιόντος.

“The Æthiopians, the most remote of mankind, are divided into two parts, the one at the setting of Hyperion, the other at his rising.”

3478 A tribe of Æthiopia, whose position varied considerably at different epochs of history. Their predatory and savage habits caused the most extraordinary reports to be spread of their appearance and ferocity. The more ancient geographers bring them as far westward as the region beyond the Libyan Desert, and into the vicinity of the Oases. In the time however of the Antonines, when Ptolemy was composing his description of Africa, they appear to the south and east of Egypt, in the wide and almost unknown tract which lay between the rivers Astapus and Astobores.

3479 Mela speaks of this race as situate farthest to the west. The description of them here given is from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183-185, who speaks of them under the name of “Atarantes.”

3480 The people who are visited by no dreams, are called Atlantes by Herodotus, the same name by which Pliny calls them. He says that their territory is ten days’ journey from that of the Atarantes.

3481 This also is borrowed from Herodotus. As some confirmation of this account, it is worthy of remark, that the Rock Tibboos of the present day, who, like the ancient Troglodytæ, dwell in caves, have so peculiar a kind of speech, that it is compared by the people of Aujelah to nothing but the whistling of birds. The Troglodytæ of Fezzan are here referred to, not those of the coasts of the Red Sea.

3482 Mela says that they look upon the Manes or spirits of the departed as their only deities.

3483 This is said, in almost the same words, of the Garamantes, by Herodotus. The mistake was probably made by Mela in copying from Herodotus, and continued by Pliny when borrowing from him.

3484 So called from their supposed resemblance in form to the Satyrs of the ancient mythology, who were represented as little hairy men with horns, long ears, and tails. They were probably monkeys, which had been mistaken for men.

3485 Half goat, half man. See the Note 3254 relative to Ægipan, in C. 1 of the present Book, p. 378.

3486 Evidently intended to be derived from the Greek ἱμὰς “a thong,” and πόδες “the feet.” It is most probable that the name of a savage people in the interior bore a fancied resemblance to this word, upon which the marvellous story here stated was coined for the purpose of tallying with the name. From a statement in the Æthiopica of Heliodorus, B. x., Marcus suggests that the story as to the Blemmyæ having no heads arose from the circumstance, that on the invasion of the Persians they were in the habit of falling on one knee and bowing the head to the breast, by which means, without injury to themselves, they afforded a passage to the horses of the enemy.

3487 It must be remembered, as already mentioned, that the ancients looked upon Egypt as forming part of Asia, not of Africa. It seems impossible to say how this supposition arose, when the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez form so natural and so palpable a frontier between Asia and Africa.

3488 It is not improbable that these numbers are incorrectly stated in the MSS. of our author.

3489 Parisot remarks that Pliny is in error in this statement. A considerable part of Lower Egypt lay both on the right and left of the Delta or island formed by the branches of the Nile. It must be remembered, however, that our author has already included a portion of what was strictly Egypt, in his description of Libya Mareotis.

3490 By reason of its triangular form, Δ.

3491 The Ombite nome worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak. Its capital was Ombos.

3492 This nome destroyed the crocodile and worshipped the sun. Its capital was Apollinopolis Magna.

3493 It worshipped Osiris and his son Orus. The chief town was Thermonthis.

3494 Probably the original kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. It worshipped Osiris. Its capital was This, afterwards called Abydos.

3495 The nome of Thebes, which was its chief town.

3496 Its capital was Coptos.

3497 Its chief town was Tentyra. This nome worshipped Athor or Venus, Isis, and Typhon. It destroyed the crocodile.

3498 Perhaps the same as the Panopolite or Chemmite nome, which had for its chief town Chemmis or Panopolis. It paid divine honours to a deified hero.

3499 It probably worshipped Typhon. Its capital was Antæopolis.

3500 Probably an offshoot from a nome in the Heptanomis of similar name.

3501 Dedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was Lycopolis. It should be remarked that these names do not appear to be given by Pliny in their proper geographical order.

3502 Some of these nomes were inconsiderable and of little importance. The Bubastite nome worshipped Bubastis, Artemis, or Diana, of whom it contained a fine temple.

3503 Its chief town was Tanis. In this nome, according to tradition, Moses was born.

3504 Its capital was Athribis, where the shrew-mouse and crocodile were worshipped.

3505 The seat of the worship of the dog-headed deity Anubis. Its capital was Cynopolis; which is to be distinguished from the Deltic city and other places of that name, as this was a nome of the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt, to which also the Hammonian nome belonged.

3506 The border nome of Upper and Middle Egypt.

3507 Its capital was Pachnamunis. It worshipped a goddess corresponding to the Greek Leto, or the Latona of the Romans.

3508 Its capital was Busiris. It worshipped Isis, and at one period was said to have sacrificed the nomad tribes of Syria and Arabia.

3509 Its chief town was Onuphis.

3510 Its chief city was Sais, and it worshipped Neith or Athene, and contained the tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris.

3511 Its capital was Tava.

3512 Its chief town was Naucratis on the coast, the birth-place of Athenæus, the Deipnosophist. By some authors it is made part of the Saitic nome. The names given by Pliny vary very considerably from those found in others of the ancient writers.

3513 The capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, ‘The city of Hercules,’ as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the entrance of the nome of Arsinoïtes, formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city south of the Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable; a portion of them are to be seen at the modern hamlet of Amasieh.

3514 He probably means Arsinoë or Arsinoïtis, the chief town of the nome of that name, and the city so called at the northern extremity of the Heroöpolite Gulf in the Red Sea. The former is denoted by the modern district of El-Fayoom, the most fertile of ancient Egypt. At this place the crocodile was worshipped. The Labyrinth and Lake Mœris were in this nome. Extensive ruins at Medinet-el-Fayoom, or El-Fares, represent its site. The modern Ardscherud, a village near Suez, corresponds to Arsinoë on the Red Sea. There is some little doubt however whether this last Arsinoë is the one here meant by Pliny.

3515 Memphis was the chief city of this nome, which was situate in Middle Egypt, and was the capital of the whole country, and the residence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded Psammetichus, B.C. 616. This nome rose in importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais, but was afterwards eclipsed by the progress of Alexandria under the successors of Alexander the Great.

3516 At which Middle Egypt terminates.

3517 They are more generally looked upon as forming one nome only, and included under the name of Hammonium.

3518 Its chief town was Heroöpolis, a principal seat of the worship of Typhon, the evil or destroying genius.

3519 The same as the nome of Arsinoïtes, the capital of which, Arsinoë, was originally called Crocodilopolis.

3520 Now known as Birket-el-Keroum. This was a vast lake on the western side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, used for the reception and subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile. The supposition that it was formed by artificial means is now pretty generally exploded, and it is regarded as of natural formation. It was situate in the nome of Arsinoïtes or Crocodilopolites. Its length seems to be overstated by our author, as at the present day it is only thirty miles in length and five in breadth at the widest part.

3521 And it is generally supposed that they are so up to the present day. The ethnographer Jablonski is of opinion that this river derives its name from the Coptish word tneialei “to rise at stated times.” Servius, the commentator on Virgil, says that it is derived from the two Greek words νέα ἰλὺς “fresh mud,” in allusion to the fresh mud or slime which it leaves after each inundation. Singularly enough, Champollion prefers this silly etymology to that suggested by Jablonski.

3522 An interesting disquisition on the probable sources of the Nile, as viewed by the ancients, is to be found in the Ninth Book of Lucan’s Pharsalia. The Indian word “nilas,” “black,” has also been suggested as its possible origin.

3523 What spot is meant under this name, if indeed it is anything more than the creation of fancy, it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of precision. It is possible however that the ancients may have had some knowledge of Lake Tchad, and the Mountains of the Moon, or Djebel-Kumri, though at the same time it is more than doubtful that the Nile has its source in either of those localities, the former especially.

3524 Perhaps a kind of river lamprey. As to the Coracinus, see B. ix. c. 24, 32, and B. xxxii. c. 19, 24, 34, 44, and 53; and as to the Silurus, B. ix. c. 17, 25, and B. xxxii. c. 31, 36, 40, 43, 44, &c.

3525 The modern Vacur in Northern Africa.

3526 A district which in reality was at least 1200 or 1500 miles distant from any part of the Nile, and probably near 3000 from its real source.

3527 “Spargit.” It is doubtful whether this word means here “waters,” or “divides.” Probably however the latter is its meaning.

3528 This is the third or eastern branch of the river, now known as the Tacazze. It rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′ north lat. and 39° 40′ east long., and joins the main stream of the Nile, formed by the union of the Abiad and the Azrek, in 17° 45′ north lat. and about 34° 5′ east long.; the point of junction being the apex of the island of Meroë, here mentioned by Pliny.

3529 Possibly by this name he designates the Bahr-el-Abied, or White River, the main stream of the Nile, the sources of which have not been hitherto satisfactorily ascertained. The Astapus is supposed to have been really the name of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, the third branch of the Nile, the sources of which are in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′ north lat. and 39° 40′ east long.

3530 Or “side of the water that issues from the shades.” As Hardouin says, this does not appear to be a very satisfactory explanation.

3531 Said by Tzetzes to have been derived from the Greek τρίτος, “the third,” because it had three times changed its name: having been called, first, the Ocean; secondly, Aëtus, or the Eagle; and thirdly, Ægyptus.

3532 Or the “Cataracts,” for which it is the Greek name. The most northerly of these cataracts, called the First Cataract, is, and always has been, the southern boundary of Egypt. According to the most recent accounts, these Cataracts are devoid of any stupendous features, such as characterize the Falls of Niagara.

3533 The one now called the First Cataract.

3534 Seven mouths in ancient times, which have now dwindled down to two of any importance, the Damietta mouth on the east, and the Rosetta on the west.

3535 The Etesians are periodical winds, which blow steadily from one quarter for forty days each year, during the season of the Dog-days. The opinion here stated was that promulgated by Thales the philosopher. Seneca refutes it in B. iv. c. 2. of his Quæst. Nat.

3536 This was the opinion of Democritus of Abdera, and of Agatharchidas of Cnidos. It is combated by Diodorus Siculus, B. i., but it is the opinion most generally received at the present day. See the disquisition on the subject introduced in the Ninth book of Lucan’s Pharsalia.

3537 And that the high tide or inundation would be consequently continuous as well.

3538 The principal well for this purpose was called the “Nilometer,” or “Gauge for the Nile.”

3539 On this subject see Pliny, B. xviii. c. 47, and B. xxxvi. c. 11.

3540 Seneca says that the Nile did not rise as usual in the tenth and eleventh years of the reign of Cleopatra, and that the circumstance was said to bode ruin to her and Antony.—Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2.

3541 He means dense clouds, productive of rain, not thin mists. See what is said of the Borysthenes by our author, B. xxxi. c. 30.

3542 Syene was a city of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile just below the First Cataract, and was looked upon as the southern frontier city of Egypt against Æthiopia. It was an important point in the geography and astronomy of the ancients; for, lying just under the tropic of Cancer, it was chosen as the place through which they drew their chief parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to Syene at the time of the summer solstice, and a well was shown there where the face of the sun was seen at noon at that time. Its present name is Assouan or Ossouan.

3543 If this word means the “Camp,” it does not appear to be known what camp is meant. Most editions have “Cerastæ,” in which case it would mean that at Syene the Cerastes or horned serpent is found.

3544 One of these (if indeed Philæ did consist of more than a single island, which seems doubtful) is now known as Djeziret-el-Birbe, the “Island of the Temple.”

3545 This island was seated just below the Lesser Cataract, opposite Syene, and near the western bank of the Nile. At this point the river becomes navigable downward to its mouths, and the traveller from Meroë or Æthiopia enters Egypt Proper. The original name of this island was “Ebo,” Eb being in the language of hieroglyphics the symbol of the elephant and ivory. It was remarkable for its fertility and verdure, and the Arabs of the present day designate the island as Djesiret-el-Sag, or “the Blooming.”

3546 This is a mistake of Pliny’s, for it was opposite to Syene. Brotier thinks that Pliny intended to write ‘Philæ,’ but by mistake inserted Syene.

3547 Artemidorus, Juba, and Aristocreon.

3548 They were probably made of papyrus, or else of hides, like the British coracles.

3549 The last king of the line of Psammetichus, B.C. 569. He succeeded Apries, whom the Egyptians put to death. He died just before the invasion by Cambyses, having displayed great abilities as a ruler.

3550 There was the Greater Apollinopolis, the modern Edfoo, in the Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° north, about thirteen miles below the lesser Cataract: its inhabitants were enemies of the crocodile and its worshippers. The remains of two temples there are considered second only to the temple of Denderah as specimens of the sacred structures of Egypt. A Lesser Apollinopolis was in Upper Egypt, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° north. Another Lesser Apollinopolis was a town of the Thebaid in the Coptite Nome, in lat. 26° north, situate between Thebes and Coptos. It was situate at the present Kuss.

3551 Its site is unknown. Hardouin suggests that it is the Eilethuia of Ptolemy, the modern El-Kab.

3552 “City of Jupiter,” the Greek name for Thebes, the No or No Ammon of Scripture. It stood in the centre of the Thebaid, on both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. Its ruins, which are the most magnificent in the world, enclose within their site the four villages of Carnac, Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Gournou.

3553 Its hieroglyphical name was Kobto, and its site is now occupied by the modern town of Kouft or Keft. It was situate in lat. 26° north, on the right bank of the Nile, about a mile from its banks. As a halting place or rather watering-place for the caravans, it was enriched by the commerce between Libya and Egypt on the one hand, and Arabia and India and Egypt on the other, the latter being carried on through the port of Berenice on the Red Sea, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 266. In the seventh century of the Christian era, it bore for some time the name of Justinianopolis. There are a few remains of Roman buildings to be seen on its site.

3554 Also called Aphrodite or Aphroditopolis. Of this name there were several towns or cities in ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt there was Atarbechis, thus named, and a town mentioned by Strabo in the nome of Leontopolites. In the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt there was the place, the ruins of which are called Aftyeh, on the east side of the Nile, and the capital of the nome of Aphroditopolites. In Upper Egypt or the Thebais there was the present Tachta, on the west side of the Nile, between Ptolemais and Panopolis, capital of another nome of Aphroditopolites, and that one the ruins of which are now called Deir, on the west bank of the Nile, higher up than the former, and, like it, some distance from the river. It was situate in the nome Hermonthites.

3555 Another Diospolis. Great Diospolis is mentioned in the preceding page.

3556 Or Tentyra. The modern Dendera of the Arabs, called Dendôri or Hidendôri by the ancient Egyptians.

3557 In ancient times called This, and in Coptic Ebôt, the ruins of which are now known as Arábat-el-Matfoon. It was the chief town of the Nomos Thinites, and was situate in lat. 26° 10′ north and long. 32° 3′ east. In the Thebaid it ranked next to Thebes itself. Here according to general belief was the burial-place of Osiris. In the time of Strabo it had sunk into a mere village. Its ruins, though nearly buried in the sand, are very extensive. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the exact identity of This with Abydus.

3558 The ruins of these places are still to be seen at Abydus.

3559 He calls the whole of the country on the western bank of the Nile by this name.

3560 Called Absou or Absaï by the Arabs, and Psoë by the ancient Egyptians. It has been suggested that it was the same place as This, more generally identified with Abydus.

3561 Its site is now called Ekhmin or Akhmin by the Arabs, Khmim being its ancient Egyptian name. It was the chief town of the nome of Panopolites, and the deity Phthah was worshipped there under the form of Priapus.

3562 Another Aphroditopolis, the present Tachta, mentioned above, in Note 3554 in the last page. Pliny distinguishes it from that now called Deir, mentioned above.

3563 Now known as Es-Siout.

3564 Or Hermopolis—the modern Esh-moon or Ash-mounion, on the eastern bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° 54′ north. It was the capital of the Hermopolite nome in the Heptanomis. It was a place of great opulence and densely populated. The deities Typhon and Thoth were principally worshipped at this place. The latter, the inventor of the pen and letters, nearly corresponded with the Hermes of the Greeks (the Mercury of the Romans), from which the Hellenized name of the place. Its ruins are very extensive.

3565 This town was no doubt connected with the alabaster quarries of Mount Alabasternus, now Mount St. Anthony, and the hill of Alabastrites, now the Côteau Hessan.

3566 Or Cynopolis, the chief place of the Cynopolite nome. The Dog-headed deity Anubis was worshipped here. The modern Samallus occupies its site. This place was in the Heptanomis, but there were several other towns of the same name, one of which was situate in the Delta or Lower Egypt.

3567 In C. 9, when speaking of the nome of Heracleopolites; of which nome, this place, called Heracleopolis, was the capital. It was situate at the entrance of the valley of the Fayoum, on an island formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis it was probably the most important city north of the Thebaid. It furnished two dynasties of kings to Egypt. The ichneumon was worshipped here, from which it may be inferred that the people were hostile to the crocodile. Its ruins are inconsiderable; the village of Anasieh covers part of them.

3568 The capital of the nome of Arsinoïtes, seated on the western bank of the Nile, between the river and Lake Mœris, south-west of Memphis, in lat. 29° north. It was called under the Pharaohs, “the City of Crocodiles,” from the reverence paid by the people to that animal. Its ruins are to be seen at Medinet-el-Fayoom or El-Fares.

3569 Its magnificent ruins, known by the name of Menf and Metrabenny, are to be seen about ten miles above the pyramids of Gizeh.

3570 This lay beyond Lake Mœris, or Birket-el-Keroun, at a short distance from the city of Arsinoë. It had 3000 apartments, 1500 of which were underground. The accounts given by modern travellers of its supposed ruins do not agree with what we have learned from the ancients respecting its architecture and site. The purposes for which it was built are unknown. Its supposed site is called Havara.

3571 If this is not an abbreviation or corruption for Crocodilon, as Hardouin suggests, it may probably mean the “town of Rams,” from the worship perhaps of that animal there.

3572 Heliopolis or Rameses. In Scripture it is called by the names of On and No—Gen. xli. 45 and Ezek. xxx. 15. It stood on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of the Great Canal which connected the river with the Red Sea, and close adjoining to the present overland route for travellers to India. It was one of the most ancient of the Egyptian cities; here the father-in-law of Joseph exercised the office of high-priest, and here the prophet Jeremiah is supposed to have written his Book of Lamentations. Its priests were the great depositaries of the theological and historical learning of Egypt. Solon, Thales, and Plato were reputed each to have visited its schools. According to Macrobius, Baalbec, the Syrian City of the Sun, was a colony from this place. It was the capital of the nome Heliopolites, and paid worship to the sun and the bull Mnevis, the rival of Apis. From Josephus we learn that after the dispersion and fall of the tribes of Judah and Israel, great numbers of the Jews took refuge at this place, forming almost one-half of its population. The ruins, which were extremely magnificent, occupied in the twelfth century an area nearly three miles in extent. Pliny speaks of the great obelisk there, which is still standing. (See B. xxxvi. c. 9.) The village of Matarieh occupies a part of its site, and besides the obelisk of red granite, there are a few remains of the Temple of the Sun.

3573 Now called Birk-el-Mariout.

3574 Or Dinocrates. He was the architect of the new temple of Diana at Ephesus, which was built after the destruction of the former one by Herostratus. It was this architect who formed a design for cutting Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander, with a city in the right hand and a reservoir of the mountain streams in the left.

3575 Holland seems to think that the word “laxitate” applies to chlamys.

3576 The chlamys was a scarf or cloak worn over the shoulders, and especially used by military persons of high rank. It did not reach lower than the knees, and was open in front, covering only the neck, back, and shoulders.

3577 Its real dimensions were something less than 300 stadia, or thirty geographical miles long, and rather more than 150 stadia wide.

3578 Or “Pseudostomata.” These were crossed in small boats, as they were not navigable for ships of burden.

3579 In the Pharaonic times Canopus was the capital of the nome of Menelaïtes, and the principal harbour of the Delta. It probably owed its name to the god Canobus, a pitcher full of holes, with a human head, which was worshipped here with peculiar pomp. It was remarkable for the number of its festivals and the general dissoluteness of its morals. Traces of its ruins are to be seen about three miles from the modern Aboukir.

3580 Corresponding to the modern Raschid or Rosetta. It is supposed that this place was noted for its manufactory of chariots.

3581 The town of Sebennys or Sebennytum, now Samannoud, gave name to one of the nomes, and the Sebennytic Mouth of the Nile.

3582 Or the Pathinetic or Bucolic Mouth, said to be the same as the modern Damietta Mouth.

3583 The capital of the Mendesian nome, called by the Arabs Ochmoun. This mouth is now known as the Deibeh Mouth.

3584 Now called Szan or Tzan. The Tanitic Mouth, which is sometimes called the Saitic, is at the present day called Omm-Faredjé.

3585 Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Tineh. This city in early times had the name of Abaris. It was situate on the eastern side of the most easterly mouth of the Nile, which, after it, was called the Pelusiac Mouth, about two miles from the sea, in the midst of morasses. Being the frontier city towards Syria and Arabia it was strongly fortified. It was the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer.

3586 Butos or Buto stood on the Sebennytic arm of the Nile near its mouth, on the southern shores of the Butic Lake. It was the chief seat of the worship of the goddess Buto, whom the Greeks identified with Leto or Latona. The modern Kem Kasir occupies its site.

3587 Called Harbait by the Arabs, and Farbait by the ancient Egyptians.

3588 In the Delta. It was the capital of the nome of Leontopolites, and probably of late foundation, as no writer previous to Pliny mentions it. Its site is uncertain, but Thall-Essabouah, the “Hill of the Lion,” has been suggested.

3589 The chief town of the Athribitic nome in Lower Egypt. It stood on the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile. This nome and town derived their name from the goddess Thriphis, whom the inscriptions there and at Panopolis designate as the “most great goddess.” The ruins at Atrieb or Trieb, at the spot where the modern canal of Moueys turns off from the Nile, represent the ancient Athribis. They are very extensive, and among them are considerable remains of the Roman era.

3590 This was situate near the city or town of Busiris in the Delta. The modern village of Bahbeyt is supposed to cover the ruins of the temple of Isis.

3591 The modern Busyr or Abousir, where considerable ruins of the ancient city are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the nome of Busirites, and stood south of Sais, near the Phatnitic mouth, on the western bank of the Nile. This was also the name of a town in Middle Egypt, in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and represented by another village of the name of Abousir. Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 16, speaks of the Catacombs in its vicinity.

3592 The place of that name in the Delta is here meant.

3593 Probably the town of that name, otherwise called Aphroditopolis, in the nome of Leontopolites.

3594 The ruins of which are now called Sa-el-Hajjar. It was situate in the Delta, on the east side of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the ancient capital of Lower Egypt and contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs. It was the chief seat of the worship of the Egyptian goddess Neith, also known as Sais. It gave its name to the nome of Saïtes.

3595 It was situate in the Delta of Egypt and in the nome of Saïtes, on the eastern bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was a colony of the Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis, about B.C. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. It was the only place in Egypt in which, in the time of the later Pharaohs, foreigners were permitted to settle and trade. In later times it was famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, and rivalled Canopus in the dissoluteness of its manners.

3596 Ptolemy the geographer does this.

3597 Arabia Petræa; that part of Arabia which immediately joins up to Egypt.

3598 Called Arabia Felix to the present day.

3599 The part of Arabia which joins up to Egypt, Arabia Petræa namely.

3600 Strabo places this people as far south as the mouth of the Red Sea, i. e. on the east of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Forster (in his ‘Arabia,’ vol. ii.) takes this name to be merely an inversion of Beni Kahtan, the great tribe which mainly peoples, at the present day, central and southern Arabia.

3601 Probably the people of Esebon, the Heshbon of Scripture, spoken of by Jerome as being the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites.

3602 The “tent-people,” from the Greek σκηνὴ, “a tent.” This seems to have been a name common to the nomadic tribes of Arabia. Ammianus Marcellinus speaks of them as being the same as the Saraceni or Saracens.

3603 The modern El Katieh or El Kas; which is the summit of a lofty range of sandstone hills on the borders of Egypt and Arabia Petræa, immediately south of the Sirbonian Lake and the Mediterranean Sea. On its western side was the tomb of Pompey the Great.

3604 The same as the Amalekites of Scripture, according to Hardouin. Bochart thinks that they are the same as the Chavilæi, who are mentioned as dwelling in the vicinity of Babylon.

3605 The position which Pliny assigns to this nation would correspond with the northern part of the modern district of the Hedjaz. Forster identifies them with the Cauraitæ, or Cadraitæ of Arrian, and the Darræ of Ptolemy, tracing their origin to the Cedar or Kedar, the son of Ishmael, mentioned in Genesis xxv. 13, and represented by the modern Harb nation and the modern town of Kedeyre. See Psalm cxx. 5: “Woe is me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!”

3606 An Arabian people, said to have descended from the eldest son of Ishmael, who had their original abodes in the north-western part of the Arabian peninsula, east and south-east of the Moabites and Edomites. Extending their territory, we find the Nabatæi of Greek and Roman history occupying nearly the whole of Arabia Petræa, along the north-east coast of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Ælanitic Gulf, and on the Idumæan mountains, where they had their capital, Petra, hewn out of the rock.

3607 Now the Bahr-el-Soueys, or Gulf of Suez.

3608 The Bahr-el-Akabah, or Gulf of Akabah.

3609 Now Akabah, an Idumæan town of Arabia Petræa, situate at the head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, which was called after this town “Ælaniticus Sinus.” It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, with the other cities of Idumæa, by David, 2 Sam. viii. 14, and was one of the harbours on the Red Sea from which the ships of Solomon sailed for Ophir. See 1 Kings ix. 26 and 2 Chron. viii. 17. It was a place of commercial importance under the Romans and the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. A fortress now occupies its site.

3610 Its site is now known as Guzzah. It was the last city on the south-west frontier of Palestine, and from the earliest times was a strongly fortified place. It was taken from the Philistines by the Jews more than once, but as often retaken. It was also taken by Cyrus the Great and Alexander, and afterwards by Ptolemy Lagus, who destroyed it. It afterwards recovered, and was again destroyed by Alexander Jannæus, B.C. 96, after which, it was rebuilt by Gabinius and ultimately united to the Roman province of Syria. In A.D. 65 it was again destroyed, but was rebuilt, and finally fell into the hands of the Arabs, in A.D. 634.

3611 Meaning the Mediterranean.

3612 The present Suez. See B. vi. c. 33.

3613 Or the “Hollow” Syria. This was properly the name given, after the Macedonian conquest, to the great valley between the two great ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, bordering upon Phœnicia on the west, and Palestine on the south. In the wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ, the name was applied to the whole of the southern portion of Syria, which became subject for some time to the kings of Egypt; but under the Romans, it was confined to Cœlesyria proper with the district east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a portion of Palestine east of Jordan.

3614 Or Ostracine, the northern point of Arabia.

3615 This was a great fortress of Syria founded by Seleucus B.C. 300, at the foot of Mount Pieria and overhanging the Mediterranean, four miles north of the Orontes and twelve miles west of Antioch. It had fallen entirely to decay in the sixth century of our era. There are considerable ruins of its harbour and mole, its walls and necropolis. They bear the name of Seleukeh or Kepse.

3616 From the Greek ζεῦγμα, “a junction;” built by Seleucus Nicator on the borders of Commagene and Cyrrhestice, on the west bank of the Euphrates, where the river had been crossed by a bridge of boats constructed by Alexander the Great. The modern Rumkaleh is supposed to occupy its site.

3617 On this subject see B. vii. c. 57. The invention of letters and the first cultivation of the science of astronomy have been claimed for the Egyptians and other nations. The Tyrians were probably the first who applied the science of astronomy to the purposes of navigation. There is little doubt that warfare must have been studied as an art long before the existence of the Phœnician nation.

3618 Strabo places this between Mount Casius and Pelusium.

3619 See C. 12 of the present Book. Chabrias the Athenian aided Nectanebus II. against his revolted subjects.

3620 Its ruins are to be seen on the present Ras Straki.

3621 Now called the Sabakat Bardowal. It lay on the coast of Egypt, east of Mount Casius, and it is not improbable that the boundary-line between Egypt and Palæstina or Idumæa ran through the middle of its waters. It was strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A connection formerly existed between it and the Mediterranean, but this being stopped up, it gradually grew smaller by evaporation and is now nearly dry.

3622 The present Kulat-el-Arich or El Arish, situate at the mouth of the brook El-Arish, called by the Scriptures the “river of Egypt.” Its name signifies in Greek, “cutting off of noses,” and is probably derived from the fact of its having been the place of exile for criminals who had been so mutilated, under the Æthiopian kings of Egypt. Poinsinet suggests however that the name means the “town of the circumcised.”

3623 The place on its site is still called Refah, but it was really situate on the coast. Gaza has been already mentioned in a Note 3610 to C. 12, p. 423.

3624 Anthedon was on the coast of Palestine, although Pliny says to the contrary. It was situate about three miles to the south-west of Gaza, and was destroyed by Alexander Jannæus. In the time of Julian it was addicted to the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Venus. According to Dupinet the present name of its site is Daron.

3625 Brotier says that this is the same as the Mount Gerizim of Scripture, but that was situate in Samaria, a considerable distance from the southern coast of Palæstina. Pliny is the only author that mentions it.

3626 The Ascalon of Scripture, one of the five cities of the Philistines, situate on the coast of the Mediterranean, between Gaza and Jamnia. In early times it was the seat of the worship of Derceto, a fish with a woman’s head. The ruins, which still bear the name of Askulân, are very extensive, and indicative of great strength. The shalot or scallion was originally a native of this place, and thence derived its name.

3627 The Ashdod of Scripture. It was one of the five cities of the Philistines and the chief seat of the worship of Dagon. Herodotus states that it stood a siege of twenty-nine years from Psammetichus, king of Egypt. It was afterwards taken and retaken several times. It was situate between Ascalon and Jamnia, and its site is indicated by the modern village of Esdad, but no ruins of the ancient city are visible.

3628 One of these was a city of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe of Judah in the fifteenth Chapter of Joshua, 45, according to the Septuagint version, but omitted in the Hebrew, which only mentions it in 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 (where it is called Jabneh in the English version), as one of the cities of the Philistines taken and destroyed by King Uzziah. The place of this name that lay in the interior, is probably the one spoken of by Josephus as in that part of the tribe of Judah occupied by the children of Dan, as also in the 1 Maccabees, x. 69-71. The one was probably the port of the other. The ruins of the port still retain the name of Yebora, and are situate on an eminence about an hour’s distance from the sea, on the banks of the river Rûbin.

3629 Or Joppa of Scripture, now called Yâfa or Jaffa. The timber from Lebanon intended for both the first and second Temples was landed here. It was taken and retaken more than once during the wars of the Maccabees, and was finally annexed by Pompey to the Roman province of Syria. It is mentioned several times in the New Testament in connection with Saint Peter. In the Jewish war, having become a refuge for pirates, it was taken by Cestius and destroyed, and even the very ruins were demolished by Vespasian. It was afterwards rebuilt, and in the time of the Crusades was alternately in the hands of the Christians and the Moslems.

3630 To be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered by Perseus, who had borrowed for the occasion the talaria or winged shoes of Mercury. In B. ix. c. 4, Pliny states that the skeleton of the monster was exhibited at Rome by M. Æmilius Scaurus, when he was Curule Ædile.

3631 Probably the same as Derceto or Atargatis, the fish-goddess with a woman’s head, of the Syrians.

3632 Situate between Cæsarea and Joppa. It is probable that it owed its name to the Macedonian kings of either Egypt or Syria. Arsûf, a deserted village, but which itself was of considerable importance in the time of the Crusades, represents the ancient Apollonia.

3633 The site of the Turris Stratonis was afterwards occupied by Cæsarea, a city on the coast, founded by Herod the Great, and named Cæsarea in honour of Augustus Cæsar. It was renowned for the extent and magnificence of its harbour, which was secured by a breakwater of stupendous construction. For some time it was considered the principal city of Palestine and the chief seat of the Roman government. Although it again changed its name, as Pliny states, it still retained its name of Cæsarea as the Metropolitan See of the First Palestine. It was also of considerable importance during the occupation of the Holy Land by the Crusaders. Its ruins are still visible, but have served as a quarry for many generations, and Jaffa, Sidon, Acre and Beyrout have been supplied with stones from this site. Massive remains of its mole or breakwater and its towers still exist.

3634 Or Phœnicia.

3635 By some regarded as the Scriptural town of Sichem, but by others as a distinct place, though in its immediate vicinity. Its present name is Naplous or Nabolos, situate between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. Its proper name under the Romans was Flavia Neapolis. It was the birth-place of Justin Martyr.

3636 The city of Samaria, so called from Shemer, the owner of the hill which Omri, King of Israel, purchased, about B.C. 922, for its site. Herod greatly renovated this city, which he called Sebaste, in honour of his patron Augustus, in Greek “Sebastos.” Its site is now occupied by a poor village, which bears the name of Sebustieh.

3637 A town of Palæstina, frequently mentioned by Josephus as remarkable for the strength of its fortifications, and situate on the Lake Tiberias, opposite to Tarichæa. After a spirited defence, it was taken by Vespasian, who slaughtered 4000 of the survivors, upon which 5000 threw themselves from the walls, and were dashed to pieces below. The site had been forgotten for nearly eighteen centuries, when Lord Lindsay discovered it on a lofty hill on the east of Lake Tiberias, and nearly opposite the town of that name. It is now called El-Hossn, and the ruins of the fortifications are very extensive.

3638 Antiochian Syria.

3639 Peræa was the general name of that part of Palæstina which lay east of the river Jordan; but more usually, in a restricted sense, it signified a part only of that region, namely the district between the rivers Hieromax on the north, and Arnon on the south.

3640 Jericho, so often mentioned in Scripture. It was celebrated for its palm-grove, which was presented by Antony to Cleopatra. A Bedouin encampment called Riha is all that now occupies its site.

3641 A city eight or ten miles from the village Emmaüs of the New Testament. It was called Nicopolis, in commemoration, it has been suggested, of the destruction of Jerusalem. Its site is still marked by a village called Ammious, on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa.

3642 So often mentioned in the New Testament. This town lay to the S.E. of Joppa, and N.W. of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads which lead from the sea-coast. It was destroyed by the Romans in the Jewish war, but was soon after rebuilt, and called Diospolis. A village called Lud occupies its site.

3643 So called from Acrabbim, its chief town, situate nine miles from Nicopolis. The toparchy of Acrabbim, which formerly formed part of Samaria, was the most northerly of those of Judæa.

3644 Situate in the country of Benjamin. Josephus reckons it second in importance only to Jerusalem, from which, according to Eusebius, it was distant fifteen miles, on the road to the modern Nablous. That author also identifies it with the Eshcol of Scripture. Its site is marked by a small Christian village, called by the natives Jufna.

3645 Like the two preceding ones, this toparchy for a long time belonged to Samaria. Thamna, or Thamnis, was the Timnath-Serah in Mount Ephraim, mentioned in Joshua xix. 50, and xxiv. 30, as the place where Joshua was buried.

3646 The toparchy of Bethleptepha of other authors. It appears to have been situate in the south of Judæa, and in that part which is by Josephus commonly called Idumæa. Reland has remarked, that the name resembles Beth-lebaoth, a city of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in Joshua xix. 6.

3647 From the Greek, meaning the “mountain district,” or the “hill country,” as mentioned in Luke i. 39.

3648 Or “Sacred Solyma.”

3649 A fortress of Palæstina, erected by Herod the Great, at a distance of about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and not far from Tekoa. Its site has been identified by modern travellers with El-Furedis, or the Paradise; probably the same as the spot called the “Frank Mountain,” on the top of which the ruined walls of the fortress are still to be seen.

3650 Called by the Arabs Bahr-el-Arden.

3651 Situate on Mount Panias, or Paneas, on the range of Anti-Libanus.

3652 In C. 16 of the present Book.

3653 On the contrary, as Parisot observes, the Jordan runs in a straight line almost into the Dead Sea.

3654 The Lake of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, in which the Cities of the Plain were swallowed up.

3655 In Scripture also called the Lake Tiberias, and the Sea of Gennesareth, or Chinnereth. It is now called the Sea of Tabariah, or Tabarieh.

3656 The one of the two Bethsaidas, which was situate on the north of the Sea of Tiberias. It was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, who greatly beautified it, and changed its name to Julias, in honour of the daughter of Augustus, the wife of Tiberius. It is generally supposed by the learned world, that this was not the Bethsaida mentioned so often in the New Testament. Its ruins are probably those now seen on a hill called Et-Tell, on the north-western extremity of the lake.

3657 On the east of the lake. From it the district of Hippene took its name.

3658 Its ruins are to be seen at El-Kereh, on the south side of the lake. It was strongly fortified, and made a vigorous resistance against the Romans in the Jewish War. It received its name from the great quantities of fish which were salted there, τάριχοι.

3659 Now Tabariah, or Tabarieh, a miserable village. It was built by Herod Antipas, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruction of Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish Sanhedrin.

3660 These hot springs are by Josephus called Emmaüs, probably a form of the Hebrew name Hammath. Dr. Robinson, in his Biblical Researches, identifies this with the town of Hammath, of the tribe of Naphthali, mentioned in Joshua xix. 35.

3661 From the Greek ἄσφαλτος.

3662 This is an exaggeration, though it is the fact that many heavy substances, which in ordinary water would sink immediately, will float on the surface of this lake. It has been suggested, that the story here mentioned arose from the circumstance of the name of ‘bulls,’ or ‘cows,’ having been applied by the ancient Nabatæi to the large masses of asphaltum which floated on its surface.

3663 The country of the Arabian Scenitæ, or “tent people.”

3664 It lay on the east of the Dead Sea, and not the south, as here mentioned by Pliny, being a border fortress in the south of Peræa, and on the confines of the Nabatæi. There was a tradition that it was at this place that John the Baptist was beheaded. The city now bears the name of Mascra.

3665 A Greek name, signifying the “Fine Stream.” These were warm springs, situate on the eastern side of Jordan, to which Herod the Great resorted during his last illness, by the advice of his physicians. The valley of Callirhoë was visited by Captains Irby and Mangles in 1818, and an interesting account of it is to be found in their ‘Travels,’ pp. 467-469. The waters are sulphureous to the taste.

3666 The Essenes, or Hessenes. These properly formed one of the great sects into which the Jews were divided in the time of Christ. They are not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but it has been conjectured that they are alluded to in Matt. xix. 12, and Col. ii. 18, 23. As stated here by Pliny, they generally lived at a distance from large towns, in communities which bore a great resemblance to the monkish societies of later times. They sent gifts to the Temple at Jerusalem, but never offered sacrifices there. They were divided into four classes, according to the time of their initiation. Their origin is uncertain. Some writers look upon them as the same as the Assidians, or Chasidim, mentioned in 1 Maccabees, ii. 42, vii. 13. Their principal society was probably the one mentioned by Pliny, and from this other smaller ones proceeded, and spread over Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. The Essenes of Egypt were divided into two sects; the practical Essenes, whose mode of life was the same as those of Palestine; and the contemplative Essenes, who were called Therapeutæ. Both sects maintained the same doctrines; but the latter were distinguished by a more rigid mode of life. It has been suggested by Taylor, the editor of ‘Calmet’s Dictionary of the Bible,’ that John the Baptist belonged to this sect.

3667 Or Engedi. Its ancient name was Hazezon-Tamar, when it was inhabited by the Amorites. See Gen. xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xx. 2. According to Josephus, it gave name to one of the fifteen toparchies of Judæa. It still retains its name, Ain-Jedey, or “Fountain of the Goats,” and was so called from a spring which issued out of the limestone rock at the base of a lofty cliff.

3668 Its site is now known as Sebbeh, on the south-west of the Dead Sea.

3669 Δεκὰ πολεῖς, the “Ten Cities.” He alludes to the circumstance, that the number of cities varied from time to time in this district; one being destroyed in warfare, and others suddenly rising from its foundation.

3670 The capital city of Syria, both in ancient and modern times. It is now called Es-Sham. The only epithet given to it by the ancient poets is that of “ventosa,” or “windy,” found in the Pharsalia of Lucan, B. iii. l. 215, which, it has been remarked, is anything but appropriately chosen.

3671 Or the “Golden River.” It is uncertain whether this was the Abana or Pharpar, mentioned in 2 Kings v. 12. Strabo remarks, that the waters of the Chrysorroös “are almost entirely consumed in irrigation, as it waters a large extent of deep soil.”

3672 The ancient Rabbath Ammon, a city of the Ammonites. It was afterwards called Astarte, and then Philadelphia, in honour of Ptolemy Philadelphus. According to D’Anville, the present name of its site is Amman.

3673 Thirty-three miles from Apamea. Its ruins are probably those mentioned by Abulfeda under the name of Rafaniat. William of Tyre says, that it was taken in the year 1125 by the Count of Tripoli.

3674 Previously called Beth-shan. It was the next city of the Decapolis in magnitude after Damascus. It was situate in the land of the tribe of Issachar, though it belonged to the Manasites. At this place the bodies of Saul and his sons were hung up by the Philistines; see 1 Sam. xxxi. 10-12. Reland suggests that it received the name of Scythopolis, not from a Scythian colony, but from the Succoth of Gen. xxxiii. 17, which appears to have been in its vicinity. Its ruins, which still bear the name of Baisan, are very extensive.

3675 Called by Josephus the capital of Peræa, and the chief place of the district of the Gadarenes of the Evangelists. Its ruins, about six miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee, are very extensive.

3676 Still called the Yarmak, evidently from its ancient name. Hippo has been mentioned in the last Chapter.

3677 Or Dium, between Pella and Gadara. In later times, this place was included in Roman Arabia.

3678 Also called Butis. It was the most southerly of the ten cities which comprised the Decapolis, standing about five miles south of Scythopolis, or Beth-shan. Its exact site seems not to have been ascertained; but it has been suggested that it is the modern El-Bujeh. From the expression used by Pliny, it would appear to have had mineral waters in its vicinity.

3679 Of this place nothing is known; but it is most probable that the Gerasa of Ptolemy and Josephus is meant. According to the former writer, it was thirty-five miles from Pella. Its site is marked by extensive ruins, thirty-five miles east of the Jordan, known by the name of Gerash, and on the borders of the Great Desert of the Hauvan. According to Dr. Keith, the ruins bear extensive marks of splendour.

3680 Ptolemy mentions a city of this name in Cœlesyria.

3681 So called from having been originally groups of four principalities, held by princes who were vassals to the Roman emperors, or the kings of Syria.

3682 Containing the northern district of Palestine, beyond the Jordan, between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia. It was bounded on the north by the territory of Damascus, on the east by Auranitis, on the south by Ituræa, and on the west by Gaulanitis. It was so called from its ranges of rocky mountains, or τραχῶνες, the caves in which gave refuge to numerous bands of robbers.

3683 So called from the mountain of that name. Cæsarea Philippi also bore the name of Panias. It was situate at the south of Mount Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its source. It was built by Philip the Tetrarch, B.C. 3. King Agrippa called it Neronias; but it soon lost that name.

3684 In C. xiv. of the present Book, as that in which the Jordan takes its rise.

3685 A place of great strength in Cœle-Syria, now known as Nebi Abel, situate between Heliopolis and Damascus.

3686 Situate between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the north-west foot of Mount Libanus. It lay within a short distance of the sea, and was famous for the worship paid by its inhabitants to Astarte, the Syrian Aphrodite. A temple was erected here to Alexander the Great, in which Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, was born, his parents having resorted thither to celebrate a festival, A.D. 205. From this circumstance, its name was changed to Cæsarea. Burckhardt fixes its site at a hill called Tel-Arka.

3687 Of this place, which probably took its name from its numerous vines, nothing whatever is known.

3688 Called by Pliny, in B. xii. c. 41, Gabba. It was situate at the foot of Mount Carmel between Cæsarea and Ptolemais, sixteen miles from the former. No remains of it are to be seen. It must not be confounded with Gabala, in Galilee, fortified by Herod the Great.

3689 The town was situate between Cæsarea and Ptolemais. The river has been identified with the modern Nahi-el-Zerka, in which, according to Pococke, crocodiles have been found.

3690 Called Dor, before the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. See Joshua xvii. 11, and Judges i. 27. It afterwards belonged to the half-tribe of Manasseh. Its site is now called Tortura.

3691 Its site is now called Atlik, according to D’Anville. Parisot suggests that it is the modern Keufah; others that it is Hepha, near Mount Carmel.

3692 Insignificant in height and extent, but celebrated in Scripture history. It still bears the name of Cape Carmel.

3693 It is not improbable that he means the town of Porphyrium, now Khaifa, at the foot of the mountain.

3694 Probably the Gitta of Polybius. Of it and Jeba, nothing is known.

3695 The Nahr-Naman, or Abou, on which Ptolemais was situate.

3696 Employed in the extensive manufacture of that article at Tyre and Sidon, to the north of this district.

3697 A corruption of Acco, the native name; from which the English name Acre, and the French St. Jean d’Acre. The earliest mention of it is in the Book of Judges, i. 31. It is supposed that it was Ptolemy I., the son of Lagus, who enlarged it and gave it the name of Ptolemais. Its citadel, however, still retained the name of Ace. Under the Romans, Ptolemais, as mentioned by Pliny, was a colony, and belonged to Galilee. The modern city of Acre occupies its site.

3698 The Ach-Zib of Scripture, mentioned in Joshua xix. 29, and Judges i. 31. Its ruins are to be seen near the sea-shore, about three hours’ journey north of Acre. The spot is still called Es-Zib.

3699 Still called the Ras-el-Abiad, or White Promontory.

3700 A colony of the Sidonians: its scanty ruins are still to be seen at the poor village of Sur. The wars of the Crusades completed its downfall. The island is still joined to the mainland by the mole which was erected by Alexander the Great during the siege of the place; or, according to some, by the Syrians themselves.

3701 Carthage is supposed to have been colonized immediately by the people of Utica.

3702 From which was made the famous Tyrian purple.

3703 Or “ancient Tyre,” which was built on the mainland.

3704 The Zarephath of 1 Kings xvii. 9, 10, whither Elijah was sent to the widow, whose son he afterwards raised from the dead. Its site is now known as Sarfand.

3705 Probably meaning “City of the Birds,” perhaps from the quantities of game in its vicinity. Its site now bears the name of Adlan.

3706 Its site is now called Saïda. In the time of David and Solomon, it was probably subject to the kings of Tyre.

3707 Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, was said to have been the son of its king Agenor.

3708 The Lebanon of Scripture. This intervening space, the ancient Cœle-Syria, is now inhabited by the Druses.

3709 Perhaps the modern Nahr-el-Damur.

3710 Now Beyrout. By some it has been identified with the Berotha, or Berothai, of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its full name as a Roman colony was, “Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus.” It was colonized by the veterans of the Fifth, or Macedonian, and the Eighth, or Augustan, Legions. Beyrout, or Berut, is now, in a commercial point of view, the most important place in Syria.

3711 Nothing is known of this place. The name seems to mean, the “Town of the Lion.”

3712 Now the Nahr-el-Kelb, or “Dog’s River.”

3713 The site of this place seems not to be known.

3714 Now the Nahr-el-Ibrahim.

3715 The modern town which stands on its site is called Jebeil. It is situate at the foot of Lebanon. The ancient name seems to have been Gebal, and the Geblites are mentioned in Joshua, xiii. 5; 1 Kings, v. 18; and Ezek. xxvii. 9. The ruins of the ancient city are very extensive. Astarte and Isis seem to have been worshipped here.

3716 Now Batrun, a small town about twelve miles north of Byblus, said to have been founded by Ithobal, king of Tyre.

3717 Now Gazir, according to D’Anville.

3718 Twelve miles from Tripolis. Its name would seem to bear reference to a trireme, or galley. It has been said that this is the place referred to in the Book of Daniel, xi. 30.

3719 Polybius speaks of this place as being burnt by Antiochus. Its site still bears the name of Calamon, according to D’Anville.

3720 This properly consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each with its own walls, but all connected in a common constitution; having one place of assembly, and forming in reality one city only. They were colonies, as here suggested by Pliny, of Tyre, Sidon, and Arados respectively. It is still a considerable place, called Tarabolos, or Tarablis, by the Turks.

3721 Its site is still known as Ortosa, or Tortosa.

3722 Probably the same as the Nahr-el-Kebir, or “Great River,” to the north of Tripolis. It may have derived its Greek name, which signifies “free,” from its similarity to that given to it by the people of the country.

3723 This was an important city, near Antarados. Its ruins are spoken of as very extensive. Simyra is still called Sumira.

3724 Now called Ruad; an island off the northern coast of Phœnicia, at a distance of twenty stadia from the mainland, Pliny falling short here in his measurement. The city of Arados was very populous, though built on a mere rock; and, contrary to Eastern custom, the houses contained many stories. It is spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel under the name of Arvad: see c. xxvii. 8, 11. In importance, it ranked next to the cities of Tyre and Sidon.

3725 Its modern name does not appear to be known.

3726 Also called Antarados, as lying nearly opposite to the city of Arados. According to Strabo, the port of Antarados was called Carne, or Carnos. In the time of the Crusades, it was known under the name of Tortosa. Its present name is Tartus.

3727 Now Banias. It was situate twenty-four miles north of Antarados. Its name is supposed to have originated in the baths in its vicinity. The site is deserted; but a few ruins of the ancient town are still to be seen.

3728 Eight miles from Balanea. Its ruins are known by the name of Boldo.

3729 Its site is now known as Djebeleh, a small village in the vicinity of Laodicea, or Latakia. The sun was probably worshipped here, and hence the Emperor Heliogabalus derived his name.

3730 About fifty miles south of Antioch, now called Ladikiyeh, or Latakia, noted for the excellence of its tobacco, which has an European reputation. It was built by Seleucus I., on the site of an earlier city, called Ramitha. It was afterwards greatly favoured by Julius Cæsar. Herod the Great built an aqueduct here, the ruins of which are still in existence. It is now a poor Turkish village; but there are considerable remains of the ancient city to be seen in its vicinity.

3731 It has been suggested, that Pliny means the city of Lydda, in the tribe of Benjamin, which of course would be very much to the south, and quite out of the order in which he is proceeding. If that is not the place meant, this Diospolis is utterly unknown.

3732 At some miles’ distance to the north of Laodicea. Pococke found some traces of its site at a spot called Minta Baurdeleh, or the Bay of the Tower.

3733 Pliny is in error here most probably, and is speaking of a place as being in Syria which in reality was in Cilicia, between Platanus and Cragus. The name implies its situation near a mountain torrent.

3734 On a small bay, some miles north of Heraclea.

3735 Or Antioch, the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and the most famous of the sixteen cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called after the name of his father, (or son, as some say,) Antiochus. It was built on the Orontes, and formed one of the most beautiful and pleasant cities of the ancient world. The modern Antakieh is a poor town, built on the north-western part of the site of the ancient city, by the river. The walls, built by Justinian, may still be traced for a circuit of four miles. Here the followers of our Saviour first obtained the name of “Christians.”

3736 That is, “Near Daphne,” there being a celebrated grove of that name, consecrated to Apollo, in its immediate vicinity.

3737 Now called the Nahr-el-Asy.

3738 Now Seleuca, or Kepse, at the foot of Mount Pieria. It has been referred to in a previous note.

3739 Now known as Djebel-el-Akra.

3740 In the extreme north-east of Egypt. See pp. 422 and 424.

3741 The beginning of the fourth watch was three o’clock in the morning. The height of this mountain does not in reality appear to be anything remarkable, and has been ascertained to be but 5318 feet. There is probably no foundation for the marvellous story here told by Pliny; nevertheless, we are told by Spartianus, that the Emperor Adrian passed a night upon the mountain, for the purpose of seeing this extraordinary sight; but a storm arising, it prevented the gratification of his curiosity. It lay near Nymphæum and Seleucia, and its base was washed by the waters of the Orontes.

3742 Or Baalbec, in the interior of Syria.

3743 According to Ansart, it still retains that name.

3744 Now called Bylan. This was the name of the narrow pass between a portion of Mount Taurus and the Rock of Rossicum. According to Ansart, the spot is called at the present day Saggal Doutan.

3745 This was a Phœnician colony, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Issus; it is said by Ansart still to retain its ancient name.

3746 Now called Alma-Dagh, a branch of Mount Taurus, running from the head of the Gulf of Issus, north-east, to the principal chain, and dividing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There were two passes in it, the Syrian Gates and the Amanian Gates. It is often spoken of by Cicero, who was the Roman governor of Cilicia.

3747 The locality of this place is unknown, as Pliny is the only author who mentions it.

3748 Now Kulat-el-Mudik, situate in the valley of the Orontes, and capital of the province of Apamene. It was fortified and enlarged by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it its name, after his wife Apama. It also bore the Macedonian name of Pella. It was situate on a hill, and was so far surrounded by the windings of the Orontes, as to become a peninsula, whence its name of Chersonesus. Very extensive ruins of this place still exist.

3749 It is suggested, that these are the Phylarchi Arabes of Strabo, now called the Nosairis, who were situate to the east of Apamea. The river Marsyas here mentioned was a small tributary of the Orontes, into which it falls on the east side, near Apamea.

3750 This was situate in Cyrrhestica, in Syria, on the high road from Antioch to Mesopotamia, twenty-four miles to the west of the Euphrates, and thirty-six to the south-west of Zeugma; two and a half days’ journey from Berœa, and five from Antioch. It obtained its Greek name of the “Sacred City” from Seleucus Nicator, owing to its being the chief seat of the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte. Its ruins were first discovered by Maundrell.

3751 In the former editions it is “Magog;” but Sillig’s reading of “Mabog” is correct, and corresponds with the Oriental forms of Munbedj, Manbesja, Manbesjun, Menba, Manba, Manbegj, and the modern name, Kara Bambuche, or Buguk Munbedj.

3752 Astarte, the semi-fish goddess.

3753 This Chalcis is supposed to have been situate somewhere in the district of the Buckaa, probably south of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. It has been suggested, that its site may have been at, or near Zahle; in the vicinity of which, at the village of Heusn Nieba, are to be seen some remarkable remains. Or else, possibly, at Majdel Anjar, where Abulfeda speaks of great ruins of hewn stone.

3754 Ansart suggests, that Belus is here the name of a mountain, and that it may be the same that is now called Djebel-il-Semmaq.

3755 To the north of Chalcidene, a town of Syria, on the slopes of the Taurus, eighty miles to the north-cast of Antioch. In the Roman times, it was the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. The ruins near the modern village of Corus represent the ancient Cyrrhus. Of the Gazatæ and Gindareni, nothing is known.

3756 Possibly meaning the “Burghers of Granum.” Nothing is known of these people.

3757 The people of Emesa, a city in the district of Apamene, on the right, or eastern bank of the Orontes, to which, in C. 26 of the present Book, Pliny assigns a desert district beyond Palmyra. It was celebrated in ancient times for its magnificent temple of the sun, and the appointment of its priest, Bassianus, or Heliogabalus, to the imperial dignity, in his fourteenth year. It was made a colony, with the jus Italicum, by Caracalla, and afterwards became the capital of Phœnicia Libanesia. The present name of its site is Hems.

3758 The Hylatæ are totally unknown. Ituræa was situate in the north-east of Palestine, and, with Trachonitis, belonged to the tetrarchy of Philip. Its boundaries cannot be precisely determined; but it may probably be traversed by a line drawn from the Lake of Tiberias to Damascus.

3759 According to Ptolemy, the people of Mariama, some miles to the west of Emesa.

3760 In the district of Laodicea, according to Ptolemy.

3761 Near the Portæ Amani, or “Passes of Amanus.”

3762 Pinara was near Pagræ, in Pieria, last mentioned.

3763 Probably Seleucia, in Mesopotamia, now called Bir, on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, a fortress of considerable importance.

3764 Its site is doubtful. Sebj d’Aboulgazi has been suggested.

3765 The people of Arethusa, a city of Syria, not far from Apamea, situate between Epiphania and Emesa. In later times, it took the name of Restan.

3766 The people of Berœa, a town of Syria, midway between Antioch and Hierapolis. Seleucus Nicator gave to it the Macedonian name of Berœa; but, in A.D. 638, it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon. The modern Haleb, or Aleppo, occupies its site. Some excavations, on the eastern side of it, are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the neighbourhood.

3767 The people of Epiphanæa, placed by Ptolemy in the district of Cassiotis, in which also Antioch and Larissa were situate. The Itinerary of Antoninus places it sixteen miles from Larissa, thirty-two from Emesa, and 101 from Antioch of Syria. It is supposed to have been identical with the ancient Hamath, mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; Isaiah x. 9, and called “Hamath the great” in Amos vi. 2, which name it also retained in the time of St. Jerome.

3768 The people of Laodicea ad Libanum, a city of Cœle-Syria, at the northern entrance to the narrow valley, between Libanus and Anti-Libanus. During the possession of Cœle-Syria by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the south-west border fortress of Syria. It was the chief city of a district called Laodicene.

3769 Of Leucas, or Leucadia, nothing is known. Larissa, in Syria, was a city in the district of Apamene, on the western bank of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea and Epiphania. The site is now called Kulat-Seijar.

3770 In the western branch of the plateau of Iran, a portion of the Taurus chain. Considerable changes in the course of the lower portion of the river have taken place since the time when Pliny wrote. Caranitis is the modern Arzrum, or Erzrúm, of the Turks.

3771 Now called Dujik Tagh, a mountain of Armenia.

3772 It has been suggested, that the proper reading here would be Xerxene.

3773 Probably the district where the goddess Anais was worshipped, who is mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiii. c. 24.

3774 From the place of confluence where the two mountain streams forming the Euphrates unite. This spot is now known as Kebban Ma’den.

3775 A fortress upon the river Euphrates, in Lesser Armenia. It has been identified with the ferry and lead-mines of Kebban Ma’den, the points where the Kara Su is joined by the Myrad-Chaï, at a distance of 270 miles from its source; the two streams forming, by their confluence, the Euphrates.

3776 Other readings have “Pastona” here, said by D’Anville to be the modern Pastek.

3777 Called the metropolis of Lesser Armenia by Procopius. It was situate between Anti-Taurus and the Euphrates, and celebrated for its fertility, more especially in fruit-trees, oil, and wine. The site of the city Melitene is now called Malatiyah, on a tributary of the Euphrates, and near that river itself.

3778 It is generally supposed that “twenty-four” would be the correct reading here.

3779 There were two places of this name. The one here spoken of was a town of Lesser Armenia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the first, or principal curve, which takes place before the river enters Mount Taurus. It is represented by the modern Iz Oghlu.

3780 No other writer is found to make mention of the Lycus, which flows into the Euphrates, though there is a river formerly so called, which flows into the Tigris below Larissa, the modern Nimroud. D’Anville is of opinion, that it is formed from the numerous springs, called by the people of the district Bing-gheul, or the “Thousand Springs.”

3781 Now called the Myrad-Chaï. Ritter considers it to be the south arm of the Euphrates. The Arsanus is mentioned by no writer except Pliny.

3782 The defile at this place is now called the Cataract of Nachour, according to Parisot.

3783 The more general reading here is “Omira.” Hardouin is of opinion, that this is the district referred to in the Book of Judith, ii. 24. In the Vulgate, it appears to be twice called the river Mambre; but in our version it is called Arbonaï.

3784 Burnouf has concluded, from a cuneiform inscription which he deciphered, that the name of this people was Ayurâ, and that Hardouin is wrong in conjecturing that it was a name derived from the Greek ὄρος, “a mountain,” and designating the people as a mountain tribe. If Burnouf is right, the proper reading here would seem to be Arœi, or Arrhœi.

3785 The length of the schœnus has been mentioned by our author in C. 11 of the present Book. M. Saigey makes the Persian parasang to be very nearly the same length as the schœnus of Pliny.

3786 Commagene was a district in the north of Syria, bounded by the Euphrates on the east, by Cilicia on the west, and by Amanus on the north. Its capital was Samosata.

3787 The place here spoken of by Pliny is probably the same mentioned by Ptolemy as in Cataonia, one of the provinces of Cappadocia. According to Parisot, the site of the place is called at the present day ‘Ra Claudie.’

3788 Salmasius has confounded these cataracts with those of Nachour, or Elegia, previously mentioned. It is evident, however, that they are not the same.

3789 Now called Someisat. In literary history, it is celebrated as being the birth-place of the satirist Lucian. Nothing remains of it but a heap of ruins, on an artificial mound.

3790 In the district of Osrhoëne, in the northern part of Mesopotamia. It was situate on the Syrtus, now the Daisan, a small tributary of the Euphrates. Pliny speaks rather loosely when he places it in Arabia. It is supposed that it bore the name of Antiochia during the reign of the Syrian king, Antiochus IV. The modern town of Orfahor Unfah is supposed to represent its site.

3791 “The beautiful stream.” It is generally supposed that this was another name of Edessa.

3792 Supposed to be the Haran, or Charan, of the Old Testament. It was here, as alluded to by Pliny, that Crassus was defeated and slain by the Parthian general, Surena. It was situate in Osroëne, in Mesopotamia, and not far from Edessa. According to Stephanus, it had its name from Carrha, a river of Syria, and was celebrated in ancient times for its temple of Luna, or Lunus.

3793 According to Strabo, the Aborras, now the Khabur, flowed round this town. By Tacitus it is called Anthemusias. According to Isidorus of Charax, it lay between Edessa and the Euphrates.

3794 Now Rakkah, a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth of the river Bilecha. It was built by order of Alexander the Great, and completed probably by Seleucus. It is supposed to have been the same place as Callinicum, the fortifications of which were repaired by Justinian. Its name was changed in later times to Leontopolis by the Emperor Leo.

3795 Now called Sinjar, according to Brotier. Some writers imagine that this was the site of “the plain in the land of Shinar,” on which the Tower of Babel was built, mentioned in the Book of Genesis, xi. 2.

3796 Mentioned in C. 17 of the present Book.

3797 Probably not that in the district of Cassiotis, and on the western bank of the Orontes, mentioned in C. 19 of the present Book. Of this locality nothing seems to be known, except that Dupinet states that it is now called Adelphe by the Turks.

3798 Probably the “Antiochia ad Taurum” mentioned by the geographer Stephanus, and by Ptolemy. Some writers place it at the modern Aintab, seventy-five miles north-east of Aleppo.

3799 Now called Roum-Cala, or the “Roman Castle.” For Zeugma see p. 424.

3800 In the north-east of the district of Astropatene, originally called Rhaga. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and by him called Europus. Colonel Rawlinson has identified it with the present Veramin, at no great distance from the ancient Rhages.

3801 Its ruins are to be seen at the ford of El Hamman, near the modern Rakkah. It stood on the banks of the Euphrates; and here was the usual, and, for a long time, the only ford of the Euphrates. It is supposed to have derived its name from the Aramean word “Thiphsach,” signifying “a ford.”

3802 Or “Dwellers in Tents.” See p. 422.

3803 According to Ortelius and Hardouin, this is the place called Sura by Pliny, in C. 26 of the present Book; but Parisot differs from that opinion. Bochart suggests, that “Ur, of the Chaldees,” is the place referred to under this name; but, as Hardouin observes, that place lay at a considerable distance to the south.

3804 So called from the circumstance that Palmyra stood in the midst of them. It was built by King Solomon, in an oasis of the Desert, in the midst of palm groves, from which it received its Greek name, which was a translation also of the Hebrew “Tadmor,” “the city of palm-trees.” It lay at a considerable distance from the Euphrates. Its site presents considerable ruins; but they are all of the Roman period, and greatly inferior to those of Baalbec or Heliopolis.

3805 The rock fortress of the Idumæans in Arabia Petræa, now called Wady-Musa, half-way between the head of the Gulf of Akabah and the Dead Sea.

3806 Which it continued to do until it was conquered under its queen, Zenobia, by the Emperor Aurelian, in A.D. 270. It was partially destroyed by him, but was afterwards fortified by Justinian; though it never recovered its former greatness.

3807 See B. vi. c. 30.

3808 Pliny is the only author that makes mention of Stelendene.

3809 In C. 19 of the present Book.

3810 Previously mentioned by Pliny. See p. 439. Of Elatium nothing is known.

3811 The same place that is also mentioned in history as Flavia Firma Sura. The site of Philiscum is totally unknown.

3812 Nothing is known of this place.

3813 Parisot remarks, that it is true that the Euphrates increases periodically, much in the same manner as the Nile; but that its increase does not arise from similar causes, nor are the same results produced by it, seeing that the river does not convey the same volume of water as the Nile, and that the country in the vicinity of its bed does not, like Egypt, form a valley pent up between two ranges of hills.

3814 So called probably from the Greek διαφανὴς, “transparent.” It has not been identified, but it was no doubt a small stream falling into the Gulf of Issus.

3815 Or “Passes.” As to Mount Amanus, see C. 18 of the present Book.

3816 Parisot suggests that this is the Chersos of Xenophon, the modern Kermes.

3817 The Deli-Su of modern times according to D’Anville, the Maher-Su according to Pococke.

3818 Pliny is the only writer that mentions this river Lycus.

3819 The Gulf of Issos is now called the Gulf of Scanderoon or Iskenderun, from the town of that name, the former Alexandria ad Issum, mentioned here by Pliny. In the vicinity of Issus, Alexander defeated the army of Darius. The exact site of the town appears not to have been ascertained.

3820 Which still preserves its name in Iskenderun, on the east side of the Gulf. It probably received its name in honour of Alexander the Great.

3821 Or the “Green” River. Its identity is unknown.

3822 Now called Ayas Kala or Kalassy. It was a place, in the Roman period, of some importance.

3823 The modern river Jihan.

3824 Or “Passes” of Cilicia, through the range of Taurus.

3825 Called Mallo in modern times, according to Hardouin and Dupinet.

3826 At the mouth of the Pyramus, according to Tzetzes.

3827 Famous as the birth-place of St. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles. Its ruins still bear the name of Tersus. During the civil war it took part with Julius Cæsar, and from him received the name of Juliopolis.

3828 They lie between the rivers Djihoun and Syhoun, according to Ansart.

3829 Now called Messis, according to D’Anville and Mannert. The site of Cassipolis, or Cassiopolis according to some readings, is unknown.

3830 The sites of Thynos and Zephyrium appear to be unknown. Anchiale was situate on the coast, upon the river Anchialeus, according to the geographer Stephanus. Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo, says that at this place was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and on it a relief in stone representing a man snapping the fingers of the right hand. He adds, “It is said that there is an Assyrian inscription also, recording that Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorting the reader to eat, drink, &c., as everything else is not worth That, the meaning of which was shown by the attitude of the figure.” Athenæus however cites Amyntas as his authority for stating that the tomb of Sardanapalus was at Nineveh. Leake is of opinion that a mound on the banks of the river beyond the modern villages of Kazalu and Karaduar forms the remains of Anchiale.

3831 The modern Syhou, according to Ansart.

3832 Now called the Tersoos Chai. It is remarkable for the coldness of its waters, and it was here that Alexander the Great nearly met with his death from bathing when heated, in the stream.

3833 Now Chelendreh. It was a strong place on the coast, situate on a high rock nearly surrounded by the sea. None of its ruins seem older than the early period of the Roman empire. The Turks call it Gulnare.

3834 Probably so called from a temple to the Sea Nymphs there.

3835 To distinguish it from Solæ or Soli of Cyprus. It was situate between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus, and was said to have been colonized by Argives and Lydians from Rhodes. Alexander mulcted its inhabitants of 200 talents, for their adhesion to the Persians. It was celebrated as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, the comic poet Philemon, and the poet and astronomer Aratus. Its name is perpetuated in the word Solecism, which is said to have been first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or as some say, of Soli in Cyprus.

3836 It still retains its ancient name, and is situate on the western side of the Sarus, now the Syhoun or Syhan. Pompey settled here some of the Cilician pirates whom he had conquered.

3837 Leake, in his ‘Asia Minor,’ p. 196, says, “The vestiges of Cibyra are probably those observed by Captain Beaufort upon a height which rises from the right bank of a considerable river about eight miles to the eastward of the Melas, about four miles to the west of Cape Karáburnu, and nearly two miles from the shore.” Ptolemy mentions Cibyra as an inland town of Cilicia Trachea, but Scylax places it on the coast.

3838 Its ruins are still called Pinara or Minara. It was an inland city of Lycia, some distance west of the river Xanthus, and at the foot of Mount Cragus.

3839 Or perhaps ‘Podalie.’ Of it nothing seems to be known.

3840 Or Selinuntum, now Selenti, on the coast of Cilicia. In consequence of the death here of the Emperor Trajan, it received the name of Trajanopolis. Of Ale, if that is the correct reading, nothing whatever is known.

3841 On the coast of Cilicia; mentioned by Strabo as having a port. Leake places it at or near the ruined castle called Sokhta Kalesi, below which is a port, and a peninsula on the east side of the harbour covered with ruins.

3842 In the district of Selenitis. It has been identified with the site of the modern fortress of Lambardo. It is also suggested that it may have been the same place as Laerte, the native city of Diogenes Laertius. Of Doron nothing seems to be known.

3843 Its ruins are supposed to be those seen by Leake near the island of Crambusa. Here the walls of an ancient city may still be traced, and a mole of unhewn rocks projects from one angle of the fortress about 100 yards across the bay.

3844 Strabo describes this cave as a vast hollow of circular form, surrounded by a margin of rock on all sides of considerable height; on descending it, the ground was found full of shrubs, both evergreens and cultivated, and in some parts the best saffron was grown. He also says that there was a cave which contained a large spring, from which arose a river of clear water which immediately afterwards sank into the earth and flowed underground into the sea. It was called the Bitter Water. This cave, so famed in ancient times, does not appear to have been examined by any modern traveller. It was said to have been the bed of the giant Typhon or Typhœus.

3845 Now known as the Ghiuk-Su.

3846 Supposed to be the same as the modern Lessan-el-Kahpeh.

3847 Or Holmi, on the coast of Cilicia Tracheia, a little to the south-west of Seleucia. Leake thinks that the modern town of Aghaliman occupies the site of Holmœ.

3848 Probably the same place as the Aphrodisias mentioned by Livy, Diodorus Siculus, and Ptolemy.

3849 On the headland now called Cape Anemour, the most southerly part of Asia Minor. Beaufort discovered on the point indications of a considerable ancient town.

3850 Its site is now called Alaya or Alanieh. This spot was Strabo’s boundary-line between Pamphylia and Cilicia. Some slight remains of the ancient town were seen here by Beaufort, but no inscriptions were found.

3851 Identified by Beaufort with the modern Manaugat-Su.

3852 So called, either from an adjacent mountain of that name, or its founder, Anazarbus. Its later name was Cæsarea ad Anazarbum. Its site is called Anawasy or Amnasy, and is said to display considerable remains of the ancient town. Of Augusta nothing is known: Ptolemy places it in a district called Bryelice.

3853 Identified by Ainsworth with the ruins seen at Kara Kaya in Cilicia.

3854 Pompey settled some of the Cilician pirates here after his defeat of them. It was thirty miles east of Anazarbus, but its site does not appear to have been identified.

3855 An island off the shore of Cilicia, also called Sebaste.

3856 Some of the MSS. read “Riconium” here.

3857 Its ruins are called Selefkeh. This was an important city of Seleucia Aspera, built by Seleucus I. on the western bank of the river Calycadnus. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in honour of Zeus Olympius. It was a free city under the Romans. It was here that Frederick Barbarossa, the emperor of Germany, died. Its ruins are picturesque and extensive.

3858 Meaning that the inhabitants of Holmia were removed by Seleucus to his new city of Seleucia.

3859 Said by Vitruvius to have had the property of anointing those who bathed in its waters. If so, it probably had its name from the Greek word λιπαρὸς, “fat.” It flowed past the town of Soloë. Bombos and Paradisus are rivers which do not appear to have been identified.

3860 A branch of the Taurus range.

3861 It bordered in the east on Lycaonia, in the north on Phrygia, in the west on Pisidia, and in the south on Cilicia and Pamphylia.

3862 A well-fortified city at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was twice destroyed, first by its inhabitants when besieged by Perdiccas, and again by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Strabo says that Amyntas of Galatea built a new city in its vicinity out of the ruins of the old one. D’Anville and others have identified the site of Old Isauria with the modern Bei Sheher, and they are of opinion that Seidi Sheher occupies the site of New Isaura, but Hamilton thinks that the ruins on a hill near the village of Olou Bounar mark the site of New Isaura. Of the two next places nothing seems to be known at the present day.

3863 In the last Chapter.

3864 In Pisidia, at the southern extremity of Lake Caralitis. Tacitus, Annals, iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty-four fortresses: whereas Strabo speaks of them as the most barbarous of all the Pisidian tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by the consul Quirinius in the time of Augustus.

3865 Pisidia was a mountainous region formed by that part of the main chain of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian Gulf; the shore itself at the foot of the mountains forming the district of Pamphylia. On the south-east it was bounded by Cilicia, on the east and north-east by Lycaonia and Isauria, and by Phrygia Parorios on the north, where its boundaries greatly varied at different times.

3866 Generally called “Antioch of Pisidia,” was situate on the south side of the mountain boundary between Phrygia and Pisidia. The modern Yalobatch is supposed to occupy its site. The remains of the ancient town are numerous. Its title of Cæsarea was probably given to it on its becoming a Roman colony early in the imperial period.

3867 D’Anville suggests that the modern Haviran occupies its site, and that Sadjakla stands on that of Sagalessos.

3868 This country was bounded on the north by Galatia, on the east by Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia Aspera, on the south-west by Isauria and Phrygia Parorios, and on the north-west by Great Phrygia. It was assigned under the Persian empire to the satrapy of Cappadocia, but considered by the Greek and Roman geographers the south-east part of Phrygia.

3869 Phrygia, or the western part of Asia, the first part of the Asiatic continent that received the name of Asia. Sec Chapters 28 & 29 of the present Book.

3870 D’Anville thinks that the place called Il-Goun occupies the site of Philomela.

3871 Hardouin suggests that the reading here is “Tibriani,” the people of Tibrias. Ansart is of opinion that Thymbrium is meant, the place at which Cyrus defeated the army of Crœsus.

3872 Its site is unknown. It was probably so called from the quarries of white stone or marble in its vicinity. Pelta and Tyrium are also equally unknown.

3873 Iconium was regarded in the time of Xenophon as the easternmost town of Phrygia, while all the later authorities described it as the principal city of Lycaonia. In the Acts of the Apostles it is described as a very populous city, inhabited by Greeks and Jews. Its site is now called Kunjah or Koniyeh.

3874 It has been suggested that this may be the Tarbassus of Artemidorus, quoted by Strabo. Hyde was in later times one of the episcopal cities of Lycaonia.

3875 Their district is called Melyas by Herodotus, B. i. c. 173. The city of Arycanda is unknown.

3876 United with Cilicia it now forms the province of Caramania or Kermanieh. It was a narrow strip of the southern coast of Asia Minor, extending in an arch along the Pamphylian Gulf between Lycia on the west, Cilicia on the east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia.

3877 Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements in this country to Mopsus, son of Apollo (or of Rhacius), after the Trojan war.

3878 Now called the Gulf of Adalia, lying between Cape Khelidonia and Cape Anemour.

3879 Now called Candeloro, according to D’Anville and Beaufort.

3880 Or Aspendus, an Argeian colony on the river Eurymedon. The “mountain” of Pliny is nothing but a hill or piece of elevated ground. It is supposed that it still retains its ancient name. In B. xxxi. c. 7, Pliny mentions a salt lake in its vicinity.

3881 Hardouin suggests that the correct reading is ‘Petnelessum.’

3882 A city of remarkable splendour, between the rivers Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia from the mouth of the former. It was a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis or Diana. In the later Roman empire it was the capital of Pamphylia Secunda. It was the first place visited by St. Paul in Asia Minor. See Acts, xiii. 13 and xiv. 25. Its splendid ruins are still to be seen at Murtana, sixteen miles north-east of Adalia.

3883 Now known as the Kapri-Su.

3884 Now called Duden-Su. It descends the mountains of Taurus in a great broken waterfall, whence its name.

3885 Probably occupying the site of the modern Atalieh or Satalieh.

3886 On the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, at the foot of Mount Solyma. Its ruins now bear the name of Tekrova.

3887 It was inclosed by Caria and Pamphylia on the west and east, and on the north by the district of Cibyrates in Phrygia.

3888 The Gulf of Satalieh or Adalia.

3889 Still known as Cape Khelidonia or Cameroso.

3890 Parisot remarks here, “Pliny describes on this occasion, with an exactness very remarkable for his time, the chain of mountains which runs through the part of Asia known to the ancients, although it is evident that he confines the extent of them within much too small a compass.”

3891 The Caspian and the Hyrcanian Seas are generally looked upon as identical, but we find them again distinguished by Pliny in B. vi. c. 13, where he says that this inland sea commences to be called the Caspian after you have passed the river Cyrus (or Kúr), and that the Caspii live near it; and in C. 16, that it is called the Hyrcanian Sea, from the Hyrcani who live along its shores. The western side would therefore in strictness be called the Caspian, and the eastern the Hyrcanian Sea.

3892 “The name of Imaüs was, in the first instance, applied by the Greek geographers to the Hindú-Kúsh and to the chain parallel to the equator, to which the name of Himâlaya is usually given at the present day. The name was gradually extended to the intersection running north and south, the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the Bolor range. The divisions of Asia into ‘intra et extra Imaum,’ were unknown to Strabo and Pliny, though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed by the intersections of the Himâlaya, the Hindú-Kúsh, and Bolor, by the expression ‘quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaüs vocatur.’ The Bolor chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary between the empires of China and Turkestan.”—Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography.

3893 The Gates of Armenia are spoken of in B. vi. c. 12, the Gates of the Caspian in C. 16 of the same Book, and the Gates of Cilicia in C. 22 of the present Book.

3894 See C. ix. of the next Book.

3895 “Strabo gives this name to only the eastern portion of the Caucasian chain which overhangs the Caspian Sea and forms the northern boundary of Albania, and in which he places the Amazons. Mela seems to apply the name to the whole chain which other writers call Caucasus, confining the latter term to a part of it. Pliny (B. v. c. 27 & B. vi. c. 11) gives precisely the same representation, with the additional error of making the Ceraunii (i. e. the Caucasus of others) part of the Great Taurus Chain. He seems to apply the name of Caucasus to the spurs which spread out both to the north-east and the south-east from the main chain near its eastern extremity, and which he regarded as a continuous range, bordering the western shores of the Caspian. See B. vi. c. 10.”—Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography.

3896 Of Chelidonium, now Khelidonia, formed by the range of Taurus.

3897 See B. ii. c. 110. The flame which continually burned on this mountain has been examined by Beaufort, the modern traveller. The name of the mountain is now Yanar: it is formed of a mass of scaglia with serpentine. Spratt says that the flame is nothing more than a stream of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several places in the Apennines. By Homer it is represented as a fabulous monster, which is explained by Servius, the commentator of Virgil, in the following manner. He says that flames issue from the top of the mountain, and that there are lions in the vicinity; the middle part abounds in goats, and the lower part with serpents. Simena appears to be unknown.

3898 So called from Ἥφαιστος, the Greek name of Vulcan. Pliny mentions this spot also in B. ii. c. 110. The flame probably proceeded from an inflammable gas, or else was ignited by a stream of naphtha.

3899 More generally known as Phœnicus, a flourishing city on Mount Olympus; now Yanar Dagh, a volcano on the eastern coast of Lycia, with which it often exchanged names. Having become the head-quarters of the pirates, it was destroyed by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Its ruins are to be seen at a spot called Deliktash.

3900 Mentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 34, as the spot whence the gagates lapis or ‘agate’ took its name. The ruins at Aladja are regarded by Leake as marking the site of Gagæ; but Sir Charles Fellowes identifies the place with the modern village of Hascooe, the vicinity of which is covered with ruins.

3901 On the road from Phaselis in Lycia to Patara. Its site is a village called Hadgivella, about sixteen miles south-west of Phaselis. The remains are very considerable.

3902 The remains of Rhodiopolis were found by Spratt and Forbes in the vicinity of Corydalla.

3903 On the Limyrus, probably the modern Phineka; the ruins to the north of which are supposed to be those of Limyra.

3904 The modern Akhtar Dagh.

3905 Now Andraki. This was the port of Myra, next mentioned. It stood at the mouth of the river now known as the Andraki. Cramer observes that it was here St. Paul was put on board the ship of Alexandria, Acts xxvii. 5, 6.

3906 Still called Myra by the Greeks, but Dembre by the Turks. It was built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea. St. Paul touched here on his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and from the mention made of it in Acts xxvii. 5, 6, it would appear to have been an important sea-port. There are magnificent ruins of this city still to be seen, in part hewn out of the solid rock.

3907 From an inscription found by Cockerell at the head of the Hassac Bay, it is thought that Aperlæ is the proper name of this place, though again there are coins of Gordian which give the name as Aperræ. It is fixed by the Stadismus as sixty stadia west of Somena, which Leake supposes to be the same as the Simena mentioned above by Pliny.

3908 Now called Antephelo or Andifilo, on the south coast of Lycia, at the head of a bay. Its theatre is still complete, with the exception of the proscenium. There are also other interesting remains of antiquity.

3909 Fellowes places the site of Phellos near a village called Saaret, west-north-west of Antiphellos, where he found the remains of a town; but Spratt considers this to mark the site of the Pyrra of Pliny, mentioned above—judging from Pliny’s words. Modern geographers deem it more consistent with his meaning to look for Phellos north of Antiphellos than in any other direction, and the ruins at Tchookoorbye, north of Antiphellos, on the spur of a mountain called Fellerdagh, are thought to be those of Phellos.

3910 The most famous city of Lycia. It stood on the western bank of the river of that name, now called the Echen Chai. It was twice besieged, and on both occasions the inhabitants destroyed themselves with their property, first by the Persians under Harpagus, and afterwards by the Romans under Brutus. Among its most famous temples were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian Apollo. The ruins now known by the name of Gunik, have been explored by Sir C. Fellows and other travellers, and a portion of its remains are now to be seen in the British Museum, under the name of the Xanthian marbles.

3911 Its ruins still bear the same name. It was a flourishing seaport, on a promontory of the same name, sixty stadia east of the mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonized by the Dorians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, from whose son Patarus it was said to have received its name. Ptolemy Philadelphus enlarged it, and called it Arsinoë, but it still remained better known by its old name. This place was visited by St. Paul, who thence took ship for Phœnicia. See Acts xxi. 1.

3912 This was more properly the name of a mountain district of Lycia. Strabo speaks of Cragus, a mountain with eight summits, and a city of the same name. Beaufort thinks that Yedy-Booroon, the Seven Capes, a group of high and rugged mountains, appear to have been the ancient Mount Cragus of Lycia.

3913 Probably the Gulf of Macri, equal in size to the Gulf of Satalia, which is next to it.

3914 This place lay in the interior at the base of Cragus, and its ruins are still to be seen on the east side of the range, about half-way between Telmessus and the termination of the range on the south coast.

3915 Its ruins are to be seen at Mei, or the modern port of Macri.

3916 Its site is unknown. That of Candyba has been ascertained to be a place called Gendevar, east of the Xanthus, and a few miles from the coast. Its rock-tombs are said to be beautifully executed. The Œnian grove or forest, it has been suggested, may still be recognized in the extensive pine forest that now covers the mountain above the city. The sites of Podalia and Choma seem to be unknown.

3917 In some editions “Cyane.” Leake says that this place was discovered to the west of Andriaca by Cockerell. It appears from Scott and Forbes’s account of Lycia, that three sites have been found between port Tristorus and the inland valley of Kassabar, which from the inscriptions appeared anciently to have borne this name, Yarvoo, Ghiouristan, and Toussa. The former is the chief place and is covered with ruins of the Roman and middle-age construction. At Ghiouristan there are Lycian rock-tombs.

3918 Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Doover, in the interior of Lycia, about two miles and a half east of the river Xanthus. Of the three places previously mentioned the sites appear to be unknown.

3919 Mentioned by the geographer Stephanus as being in Caria.

3920 Its site is fixed at Katara, on both sides of the Katara Su, the most northern branch of the Xanthus. The ruins are very considerable, lying on both sides of the stream. Balbura is a neuter plural.

3921 It lay to the west of Balbura, near a place now called Ebajik, on a small stream that flows into the Horzoom Tchy. In B. xxxv. c. 17, Pliny mentions a kind of chalk found in the vicinity of this place. Its ruins are still to be seen, but they are not striking.

3922 In the south-west corner of Asia Minor, bounded on the north and north-east by the mountains Messagis and Cadmus, dividing it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjoining to Phrygia and Lycia on the south-east.

3923 Caria.

3924 Now Cape Ghinazi. It was also called Artemisium, from the temple of Artemis or Diana situate upon it.

3925 Discharging itself into the bay of Telmissus, now Makri.

3926 “Telmissus” is the reading here in some editions.

3927 Situate in the district of Caria called Peræa. It was also the name given to a mountainous district. In Hoskyn’s map the ruins of Dædala are placed near the head of the Gulf of Glaucus, on the west of a small river called Inegi Chai, probably the ancient Ninus, where Dædalus was bitten by a water-snake, in consequence of which he died.

3928 On the Gulf of Glaucus: Stephanus however places it in Lycia. Mela speaks only of a promontory of this name.

3929 Leake places this river immediately west of the Gulf of Glaucus.

3930 Placed by Strabo sixty stadia from the sea, west of the Gulf of Glaucus, and east of Carinus. Its site is uncertain, but it may possibly be the place discovered by Fellows, which is proved by inscriptions to have been called Cadyanda, a name otherwise unknown to us. This lies N.N.E. of Makri, on the Gulf of Glaucus or Makri, at a place called Hoozoomlee, situate on an elevated plain.

3931 The same as the river Calbis of Strabo and Mela, at present the Dalamon Tchy, Quingi or Taas, having its sources in Mount Cadmus above Cibyra. It was said to have derived its name from an Indian, who had been thrown into it from an elephant.

3932 Their district was Cibyratis, of which the chief city was Cibyra. This place, uniting with the towns of Balbura, Bubon, and Œnianda, had the name of Tetrapolis; of which league Cibyra was the head, mustering 30,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. The iron found in this district was easily cut with a chisel or other sharp tool. The site of this powerful city has been ascertained to be at Horzoom, on the Horzoom Tchy, a branch of the Dalamon Tchy or Indus. The ruins are very extensive, and the theatre in fine preservation.

3933 Placed by Strabo west of Calynda. The ancient descriptions of its locality vary, but the place now known as Kaiguez is said to denote its site. The Caunii are frequently mentioned in the Persian, Grecian, and Roman histories. It was noted for its dried figs, mentioned by Pliny in B. xv. c. 19.

3934 Supposed by Mannert to be the Physcus of Strabo and the Phuscæ of Ptolemy.

3935 Leake says that this harbour is now called Aplothíka by the Greeks, and Porto Cavaliere by the Italians, lie also says that on its western shore are the ruins of an Hellenic fortress and town, which are undoubtedly those of Loryma.

3936 It had a port of the same name.

3937 Called Pandion by Mela, according to Parisot.

3938 Parisot suggests that it is the same as Loryma previously mentioned.

3939 Like the Gulf of Schœnus, a portion probably of the Dorian Gulf, now the Gulf of Syme.

3940 The modern name of this promontory is not given by Hamilton, who sailed round it. It has been confounded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo, now Capo Velo. The site of Hyda or Hyde is unknown.

3941 There was a town of this name as well. Stephen of Byzantium tells us that it received its name from a shepherd who saved the life of Podalirius, when shipwrecked on the coast of Caria.

3942 Part of it was situate on an island now called Cape Krio, connected by a causeway with the mainland. Its site is covered with ruins of a most interesting character in every direction. The Triopian promontory, evidently alluded to by Pliny, is the modern Cape Krio.

3943 It has been remarked that in his description here Pliny is very brief and confused, and that he may intend to give the name of Triopia either to the small peninsula or island, or may include in this term the western part of the whole of the larger peninsula.

3944 Of these conventus. For an account of Cibyra see last page.

3945 On the Lycus, now known as the Choruk-Su. By different writers it has been assigned to Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, but in the ultimate division of the Roman provinces it was assigned to the Greater Phrygia. It was founded by Antiochus II. on the site of a previous town, and named in honour of his wife Laodice. Its site is occupied by ruins of great magnificence. In the Apostolic age it was the seat of a flourishing Christian Church, which however very soon gave signs of degeneracy, as we learn from St. John’s Epistle to it, Revel. ii. 14-22. St. Paul also addresses it in common with the neighbouring church of Colossæ. Its site is now called Eski-Hissar, or the Old Castle.

3946 A tributary of the Phrygian Mæander.

3947 The people of Hydrela, a town of Caria, said to have been founded by one of three brothers who emigrated from Sparta.

3948 The people of Themisonium, now called Tseni.

3949 The people of Hierapolis, a town of Phrygia, situate on a height between the rivers Lycus and Mæander, about five miles north of Laodicea, on the road from Apamea to Sardis. It was celebrated for its warm springs, and its Plutonium, or cave of Pluto, from which issued a mephitic vapour of a poisonous nature; see B. ii. c. 95. The Christian Church here is alluded to by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians, iv. 13. Its ruins are situate at an uninhabited place called Pambuk-Kalessi.

3950 Situate in the north of Phrygia Salutaris; its ruins being probably those to be seen at Afiour-Kara-Hisar. From the time of Constantine this place became the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain, near a mountain quarry of the celebrated Synnadic marble, which was white with red veins and spots. This marble was also called “Docimiticus,” from Docimia, a nearer place.

3951 As already mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book.

3952 The site of Appia does not appear to be known. Cicero speaks of an application made to him by the Appiani, when he was governor of Cilicia, respecting the taxes with which they were burdened, and the buildings of their town.

3953 Eucarpia was a town of Phrygia, not far from the sources of the Mæander, on the road from Dorylæum to Apamea Cibotus. The vine grew there in great luxuriance, and to its fruitfulness the town probably owed its name. Kiepert places it in the vicinity of Segielar, but its exact site is unknown.

3954 The site of Dorylæum is now called Eski-Shehr. The hot-baths here are mentioned by Athenæus, and its waters were pleasant to the taste. Sheep-feeding appears to have been carried on here to a great extent, and under the Greek empire it was a flourishing place. The site of Midæum does not seem to be known.

3955 The people of Julia, Juliopolis, or Julianopolis, a town of Lydia, probably to the south of Mount Tmolus.

3956 This place was built near Celænæ by Antiochus Soter, and named after his mother Apama. Strabo says that it lay at the mouth of the river Marsyas. Its site has been fixed at the modern Denair. Some ancient ruins are to be seen.

3957 Pliny commits an error here; Celænæ was a different place from Apamea, though close to it.

3958 Meaning the “Fountains of the Pipe,” and probably deriving its name from the legend here mentioned by Pliny, and in B. xvi. c. 44. Strabo describes the Marsyas and Mæander as rising, according to report, in one lake above Celænæ, which produced reeds adapted for making the mouth-pieces of musical instruments, but he gives no name to the lake. Hamilton found near Denair or Apamea, a lake nearly two miles in circumference, full of reeds and rushes, which he looks upon as the lake on the mountain Aulocrene, described by Pliny in the 31st Chapter of the present Book. His account however is very confused, as he mentions on different occasions a region of Aulocrene, a valley of Aulocrene, and a mountain of Aulocrene.

3959 People of “the Mother City,” said by Stephen of Byzantium to have received that name from Cybele, the Mother of the Gods.

3960 Nothing is known of the site of Dionysopolis. It is mentioned in a letter of Cicero’s to his brother Quintus, in which he speaks of the people of this place as being very hostile to the latter.

3961 The site of Euphorbium is denoted, according to Leake, by the modern Sandukli. It lay between Synnas and Apamea, and not improbably, like Eucarpia, received its name from the fertility of its territory.

3962 The site of Acmona has been fixed at Ahatkoi, but it seems doubtful.

3963 The site of Pelta is by D’Anville called Ris-Chak or Hou-Chak.

3964 The people of Silbium or Silbia, near Metropolis.

3965 The Dorian settlements on the coast of Caria were so called. The Dorian Gulf was probably the Sinus Ceramicus mentioned below.

3966 Of these places nothing whatever seems to be known.

3967 Pitaium and Eutane seem to be unknown.

3968 A member of the Dorian Hexapolis, or League of the Six Cities. The site of this famous city is occupied by the modern Boodroum, and its ruins are very extensive. It was famous as being the birth-place of the two historians Herodotus and Dionysius. It was the largest and best fortified city of Caria.

3969 According to Parisot the site of this place is now called Angeli and Karabaglas.

3970 This place must not be confounded with Telmessus or Telmissus in Lycia, which has been previously mentioned. It was situate six miles from Halicarnassus. Of the other places here mentioned nothing seems to be known.

3971 Now the Gulf of Staneo, Kos, or Boodroum. It took its name from the port of Ceramus, now Keramo, according to D’Anville.

3972 Now the Gulf of Mandeliyeh. It took its name from the city of Iasus, the site of which is now called Askem or Asyn-Kalessi.

3973 Its ruins are to be seen at the port called Gumishlu. This was a Dorian colony on the coast of Caria, founded probably on the site of the old town of the Leleges.

3974 It has been suggested that this was only another name for the new town of Myndos, in contradistinction to Palæomyndos, or “old Myndos.”

3975 Scylax the geographer is supposed to have been a native of this place. The town is supposed to have been built partly on the mainland and partly on an island. Pastra Limani is supposed to have been the harbour of Caryanda.

3976 A Dorian city on the Promontory of Termerium.

3977 Situate near Iasus and Myndos. Leake conjectures that it may have been on the bay between Pastra Limâne and Asyn Kalesi. There was a statue here of Artemis Cindyas, under the bare sky, of which the incredible story was told that neither rain nor snow ever fell on it.

3978 See note 3972 on the last page.

3979 Its ruins are to be seen at the spot still called Melasso. It was a very flourishing city, eight miles from the coast of the Gulf of Iasus, and situate at the foot of a rock of fine white marble. It was partly destroyed in the Roman civil wars by Labienus. Its ruins are very extensive.

3980 Hamilton has fixed the site of this place between four and five miles south-east of Kuyuja, near the mouth of the valley of the Kara-Su. The surrounding district was famous for the excellence of its figs. The city was built by Antiochus, the son of Seleucus.

3981 Now called the Mendereh or Meinder.

3982 Pococke thinks that the present Jenjer is the Orsinus, while Mannert takes it to be the Hadchizik, a little winding river that falls into the Mæander.

3983 Now called Guzel-Hissar, according to Ansart.

3984 On the road from Dorylæum to Apamea. It is said to have received its name from Attalus II., who named the town after his brother and predecessor Eumenes II. Its site is known as Ishekle, and it is still marked by numerous ruins and sculptures.

3985 A tributary of the Mæander. Its modern name is not mentioned.

3986 Mannert takes the ruins to be seen at Jegni-Chehr to be those of ancient Orthosia. The town of Lysias does not appear to have been identified.

3987 The situation of this district is not known. See B. xvi. c. 16, where it appears that this region was famous for its boxwood.

3988 One of the numerous places of that name devoted to the worship of Bacchus. It was built on both sides of the ravine of the brook Eudon, which fell into the Mæander. Its ruins are to be seen at Sultan-Hissar, a little to the west of Hazeli.

3989 Its ruins are to be seen at Ghiuzel-Hissar, near Aidin. This was a flourishing commercial city, included sometimes in Ionia, sometimes in Caria. It stood on the banks of the Eudon, a tributary of the river Mæander. Under the Seleucidæ it was called Antiochia and Seleucia.

3990 From the beauty and fertility of the surrounding country.

3991 An Ionic town of Caria, on the north side of the Sinus Latmicus, fifty stadia from the mouth of the Mæander.

3992 Or Euromus, a town of Caria, at the foot of Mount Grion, which runs parallel with Latmos. Ruins of a temple to the north-west of Alabanda are considered to belong to Euromus.

3993 A town of uncertain site. It must not be confounded with the place of the same name, mentioned in c. 31 of the present Book.

3994 The ruins of its citadel and walls still exist on the east side of Mount Latmos, on the road from Bafi to Tchisme.

3995 Situate about twenty miles south of Tralles. The modern site is doubtful, but Arab Hissa, on a branch of the Mæander, now called the Tchina, is supposed to represent Alabanda. It was notorious for the luxuriousness of its inhabitants. A stone found in the vicinity was used for making glass and glazing vessels. See B. xxxvi. c. 13.

3996 Built by Antiochus I. Soter, and named, in honour of his wife, Stratonice. It stood south of Alabanda, near the river Marsyas. It is supposed that it stood on the site of a former city called Idrias, and still earlier, Chrysaoris.

3997 D’Anville identifies it with a place called Keramo, but no such place appears to be known. Strabo places it near the sea between Cnidus and Halicarnassus, and Ceramus comes next after Cnidus. Ptolemy seems to place it on the south side of the bay. Of Hynidos nothing appears to be known.

3998 Its situation is unknown; but there can be little doubt that it was founded by the Dorians who emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor from Argolis and Trœzene in the Peloponnesus. Phorontis appears to be unknown.

3999 Parisot observes that many of the towns here mentioned belonged to the northern part of Phrygia.

4000 The people of Alinda in Caria, which was surrendered to Alexander the Great by Alinda, queen of Caria. It was one of the strongest places in Caria. Its position has been fixed by Fellowes at Demmeergee-derasy, between Arab-Hissa and Karpuslee, on a steep rock.

4001 Of Xystis, as also of Hydissa, nothing appears to be known.

4002 Inhabitants of Apollonia in Caria, of which place nothing appears to be known.

4003 Pococke says that the modern site of Trapezopolis is called Karadche.

4004 The people of Aphrodisias, an ancient city of Caria, situate at the modern Ghera or Geyra, south of Antiochia on the Mæander. Aphrodite or Venus seems to have been principally worshipped at this place. Strabo places it in Phrygia.

4005 Or Coscinia, a place in Caria, which, as we may gather from Strabo, ranked below a town. Leake thinks that Tshina, where Pococke found considerable remains, is the site of this place.

4006 On the eastern bank of the Harpasus, a tributary of the Mæander. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen at a place called Harpas Kalessi. In B. ii. c. 98, Pliny speaks of a wonderful rock at this place.

4007 Now known as the Harpa.

4008 By this name alone it is known to Homer.

4009 Its ruins, now called Sart, are very extensive, though presenting nothing of importance. Its citadel, situated on a rock, was considered to be almost impregnable.

4010 Now called Kisilja Musa Dagh. It was famous for its wine, saffron, and gold.

4011 Now called the Sarabat. It was famous for its gold-producing sands.

4012 On the road between Thyatira and Sardes: near it was situate the necropolis of Sardes.

4013 Strabo says that some persons called the citadel only by that name.

4014 There was a city of Mysia or Phrygia of the name of Cadus or Cadi; but nothing is known of the place here alluded to, whose people would appear to have been a colony from Macedonia.

4015 The people of Philadelphia, now Ala-Cher, or the “Fine City,” twelve leagues south-east of Sardes, and nine leagues south of Attalia.

4016 So called from the Greek Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερὸν, “the temple of Apollo,” in the vicinity of which, south-east of Pergamus, their town was probably situate. Nothing is known of these localities.

4017 Dwellers in Mesotmolus, a town which, from its name, would appear to have been situate on the middle of Mount Tmolus.

4018 Now called the Gulf of Melasso.

4019 Now the Cape of Melasso.

4020 The remains of the Temple of Didymæan Apollo at Branchidæ are still visible to those sailing along the coast. It was in the Milesian territory, and above the harbour Panormus. The name of the site was probably Didyma or Didymi, but the place was also called Branchidæ, from that being the name of a body of priests who had the care of the temple. We learn from Herodotus that Crœsus, king of Lydia, consulted this oracle, and made rich presents to the temple. The temple, of which only two columns are left, was of white marble.

4021 The ruins of this important city are difficult to discover on account of the great changes made on the coast by the river Mæander. They are usually supposed to be those at the poor village of Palatia on the south bank of the Mendereh; but Forbiger has shown that these are more probably the remains of Myus, and that those of Miletus are buried in a lake formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mount Latmus.

4022 See B. vii. c. 57. Josephus says that he lived very shortly before the Persian invasion of Greece.

4023 Now called the Monte di Palatia.

4024 Generally called “Heraclea upon Latmus,” from its situation at the western foot of Mount Latmus. Ruins of this town still exist at the foot of that mountain on the borders of Lake Baffi.

4025 Its ruins are now to be seen at Palatia. It was the smallest city of the Ionian Confederacy, and was situate at the mouth of the Mæander, thirty stadia from its mouth.

4026 Mannert says that its ruins are to be seen at a spot called by the Turks Sarasun-Kalesi.

4027 One of the twelve Ionian cities, situate at the foot of Mount Mycale. It stood originally on the shore, but the change in the coast by the alluvial deposits of the Mæander left it some distance from the land. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of the philosopher Bias. Its ruins are to be seen at the spot called Samsun.

4028 Now called Cape Santa Maria, or Samsun.

4029 He implies that it is derived from φυγὴ “flight.”

4030 Between Ephesus and Neapolis. It belonged to the Samians who exchanged with the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay nearer to their island. The modern Scala Nova occupies the site of one of them, it is uncertain which.

4031 Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Inek-Bazar. It was situate on the river Lethæus, a tributary of the Mæander. It was famous for its temple of Artemis Leucophryene, the ruins of which still exist.

4032 See B. ii. c. 91.

4033 Now known as Ak-Hissar or the “White Castle.” Strabo informs us that it was founded by Seleucus Nicator.

4034 From the excellence of its horses.

4035 Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Ayazaluk. It was the chief of the twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, and devoted to the worship of Artemis, whose temple here was deemed one of the wonders of the world. Nothing, except some traces of its foundations, is now to be seen of this stupendous building.

4036 It was more generally said to have been founded by the Carians and the Leleges.

4037 Now called the Kara-Su, or Black River, or Kuchuk-Meinder, or Little Mæander.

4038 It has been observed that though Pliny seems to say that the Caÿster receives many streams, they must have had but a short course, and could only be so many channels by which the rivers descend from the mountain slopes that shut in the contracted basin of the river.

4039 This lake or marsh seems to be the morass situate on the road from Smyrna to Ephesus, into which the Phyrites flows, and out of which it comes a considerable stream.

4040 The Phyrites is a small river that is crossed on the road from Ephesus to Smyrna, and joins the Caÿster on the right bank ten or twelve miles above Ayazaluk, near the site of Ephesus.

4041 See B. ii. c. 91. for further mention of this island.

4042 Said to be derived from the Greek, meaning “The beautiful (stream) from Pion.”

4043 One of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia, founded by Andræmon. Notium was its port. There do not seem to be any remains of either of these places.

4044 Called also the Hales or Ales, and noted for the coolness of its waters.

4045 At Clarus, near Colophon. When Germanicus was on his way to the East, this oracle foretold to him his speedy death. Chandler is of opinion that he discovered the site of this place at Zillé, where he found a spring of water with marble steps to it, which he considers to have been the sacred fountain. Others again suggest that these ruins may be those of Notium.

4046 Its site was probably near the modern Ekklesia, but no traces of the city itself are to be found.

4047 Implying that in his time Notium was not in existence, whereas in reality Notium superseded Old Colophon, of which it was the port, and was sometimes known as New Colophon.

4048 Now known as Cape Curco.

4049 The site of this place is now known as Ritri, on the south side of a small peninsula, which projects into the bay of Erythræ. The ruins are considerable.

4050 On the south side of the bay of Smyrna. In Strabo’s time this city appears to have been removed from Chytrium, its original site. Chandler found traces of the city near Vourla, from which he came to the conclusion that the place was very small and inconsiderable.

4051 According to Nicander, this was a mountain of the territory of Clazomenæ, almost surrounded by sea.

4052 Or “the Horses,” originally four islands close to the mainland, off Clazomenæ.

4053 This was probably the same causeway that was observed by Chandler in the neighbourhood of Vourla, the site of ancient Clazomenæ.

4054 See B. ii. c. 91, where he speaks of this place as being swallowed up in the earth.

4055 From Clazomenæ.

4056 Now called Izmir by the Turks, Smyrna by the western nations of Europe; the only one of the great cities on the western coast of Asia Minor that has survived to the present day. This place stood at the head of the cities that claimed to be the birth-place of Homer; and the poet was worshipped here for a hero or demi-god in a magnificent building called the Homereum. There are but few remains of the ancient city: the modern one is the greatest commercial city of the Levant.

4057 Hardouin takes this to be the name of a town, but Ortelius and Pinetus seem to be more correct in thinking it to be the name of a mountain.

4058 It does not appear that all these mountains have been identified. Cadmus is the Baba Dagh of the Turks.

4059 Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

4060 In the time of Strabo this tributary of the Hermus seems to have been known as the Phrygius.

4061 Its site is now called Menemen, according to D’Anville. The Cryus was so called from the Greek κρύος, “cold.”

4062 The present Gulf of Smyrna.

4063 Or the “Ants.”

4064 Probably so called from the whiteness of the promontory on which it was situate. It was built by Tachos, the Persian general, in B.C. 352, and remarkable as the scene of the battle between the Consul Licinius Crassus and Aristonicus in B.C. 131. The modern name of its site is Lefke.

4065 Its ruins are to be seen at Karaja-Fokia or Old Fokia, south-west of Fouges or New Fokia. It was said to have been founded by Phocian colonists under Philogenes and Damon.

4066 The people of Hyrcania, one of the twelve cities which were prostrated by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar; see B. ii. c. 86.

4067 The people of Magnesia “ad Sipylum,” or the city of Magnesia on the Sipylus. It was situate on the south bank of the Hermus, and is famous in history as the scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the Romans the empire of the East, B.C. 190. This place also suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, but was still a place of importance in the fifth century.

4068 The people, it is supposed, of a place called Hierocæsarea.

4069 The people probably of Metropolis in Lydia, now Turbali, a city on the plain of the Caÿster, between Ephesus and Smyrna. Cilbis, perhaps the present Durgut, was their chief place.

4070 A people dwelling in the upper valley of Caÿster.

4071 Or Mysian Macedonians.

4072 The people of Mastaura in Lydia. Its site is still known as Mastaura-Kalesi.

4073 The people of Briula, the site of which is unknown.

4074 The people of Hypæpæ, a small town of Lydia, on the southern slope of Mount Tmolus, forty-two miles from Ephesus. Under the Persian supremacy, the worship of Fire was introduced at this place. Arachne, the spinner, and competitor with Minerva, is represented by Ovid as dwelling at this place; he calls it on two occasions “the little Hypæpæ.” Leake is of opinion that the ruins seen at Bereki belong to this place.

4075 The people of Dios Hieron, or the “Temple of Jupiter.” This was a small place in Ionia between Lebedus and Colophon. It has been suggested that it was on the banks of the Caÿster, but its site is uncertain.

4076 Æolis, properly so called, extended as far north as the promontory of Lectum, at the northern entrance of the bay of Adramyttium.

4077 Near Cyme, a place of Pelasgian origin. It was called Egyptian Larissa, because Cyrus the Great settled here a body of his Egyptian soldiers. According to D’Anville its site is still known as Larusar.

4078 Said to have been so called from Cyme an Amazon. It was on the northern side of the Hermus: Herodotus gives it the surname of Phriconis. Its site is supposed to be at the modern Sanderli or Sandarlio. The father of the poet Hesiod was a native of this place.

4079 It was probably so called in honour of the Emperor Augustus.

4080 Situate at a short distance from the coast. We learn from Tacitus that it suffered from the great earthquake in the time of Tiberius. Its site is called Guzel-Hissar, according to D’Anville.

4081 Originally named Agroeira or Alloeira. There is a place still called Adala, on the river Hermus, but Hamilton found no remains of antiquity there.

4082 Or the “New Walls.” Strabo speaks of it as distant thirty stadia from Larissa.

4083 Its site is unknown; but it must not be confounded with the place of that name mentioned in the last Chapter, which stood on the sea-coast. It suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.

4084 Or Grynium, forty stadia from Myrina, and seventy from Elæa. It contained a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle and a splendid temple of white marble. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, took the place by assault and sold the inhabitants as slaves. It is again mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 21.

4085 This passage seems to be in a corrupt state, and it is difficult to arrive at Pliny’s exact meaning.

4086 The port of the Pergameni. Strabo places it south of the river Caïcus, twelve stadia from that river, and 120 from Pergamum. Its site is uncertain, but Leake fixes it at a place called Kliseli, on the road from the south to Pergamum.

4087 Its modern name is said to be Ak-Su or Bakir.

4088 On the coast of the Elaitic gulf. It was almost destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of the Emperor Titus. Its site is by some thought to have been at Sanderli.

4089 Supposed to have been situate near the modern Cape Coloni. It was here that in the war with Antiochus, B.C. 191-190, the Roman fleet was hauled up for the winter and protected by a ditch or rampart.

4090 So called from Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles.

4091 A strong place opposite to Lesbos. It was on the road from Adramyttium to the plain of the Caïcus. Its site is generally fixed at Dikeli Koi.

4092 Or Carine. The army of Xerxes, on its route to the Hellespont, marched through this place. Its site is unknown.

4093 It lay outside of the bay of Adramyttium and the promontory of Pyrrha.

4094 Mentioned in the Iliad with Chryse and Tenedos.

4095 A place called Kutchulan, or, as some write it, Cotschiolan-Kuni, is supposed to occupy its site.

4096 Or Thebes, in the vicinity of Troy.

4097 In the plain of Thebes between Antandros and Adramyttium. It had a temple of Artemis, of which the Antandrii had the superintendence. Its site does not appear to have been ascertained.

4098 Not improbably the Chryse, mentioned by Homer in the Iliad, B. i. ll. 37, 390, 431; but there were several places of this name.

4099 See the note 4105 to Scepsis in the present Chapter.

4100 Or Gergis, Gergithus, or Gergithes, a town in the Troad, north of Scamander. It was a place with an acropolis and strong walls. Attalus, king of Pergamus, transplanted the people of Gergis to another spot near the sources of the Caïcus, whence we afterwards find a place called Gergetha or Gergithion, in the vicinity of Larissa. The old town of Gergis was by some said to have been the birth-place of the Sibyl, and its coins have her image impressed on them.

4101 Also called Neandria, upon the Hellespont.

4102 South of Adramyttium; in its vicinity were copper-mines and celebrated vineyards. It was here that Thucydides is said to have died.

4103 In the district of Coryphantes, opposite to Lesbos, and north of Atarneus. Pliny speaks of the oysters of Coryphas, B. xxxii. c. 6.

4104 This Aphrodisias does not appear to have been identified.

4105 Again mentioned by Pliny in B. xi. c. 80. Scepsis was an ancient city in the interior of the Troad, south-east of Alexandria, in the mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Antigonus to Alexandria; but being permitted by Lysimachus to return to their homes, they built a new city, and the remains of the old town were then called Palæscepsis. This place is famous in literary history for being the spot where certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried to prevent their transfer to Pergamus. When dug up they were found nearly destroyed by mould, and in this condition were removed by Sylla to Athens.

4106 Sometimes called the Lycormas, now known as the Fidhari or Fidharo.

4107 Frequently mentioned by Homer.

4108 Still known as Ida or Kas-Dagh.

4109 More generally known as Adramyttium or Adramyteum, now Adramiti or Edremit. According to tradition it was founded by Adramys, the brother of Crœsus, king of Lydia. It is mentioned as a sea-port in the Acts, xxvii. 2. There are no traces of ancient remains on its site.

4110 One of the heights of Mount Ida in the Troad, now called Kaz-Dag. The territory in this vicinity, as we learn from Virgil and Seneca, was famous for its fertility. The modern village of Iné is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient town of Gargara.

4111 Now Antandro, at the head of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Aristotle also says that its former name was Edonis, and that it was inhabited by a Thracian tribe of Edoni. Herodotus as well as Aristotle also speak of the seizure of the place by the Cimmerii in their incursion into Asia.

4112 Now Cape Baba or Santa Maria, the south-west promontory of the Troad.

4113 Or Sminthian Apollo. This appears to have been situate at the Chrysa last mentioned by Pliny as no longer in existence. Strabo places Chrysa on a hill, and he mentions the temple of Smintheus and speaks of a symbol which recorded the etymon of that name, the mouse which lay at the foot of the wooden figure, the work of Scopas. According to an ancient tradition, Apollo had his name of Smintheus given him as being the mouse-destroyer, for, according to Apion, the meaning of Smintheus was a “mouse.”

4114 According to tradition this place was in early times the residence of Cycnus, a Thracian prince, who possessed the adjoining country, and the island of Tenedos, opposite to which Colone was situate on the mainland. Pliny however here places it in the interior.

4115 The site of this Apollonia is at Abullionte, on a lake of the same name, the Apolloniatis of Strabo. Its remains are very inconsiderable.

4116 Or Lycus, now known as the Edrenos.

4117 Of this people nothing whatever is known.

4118 D’Anville thinks that the modern Bali-Kesri occupies the site of Miletopolis.

4119 Stephanus Byzantinus mentions a place called Pœmaninum near Cyzicus.

4120 The inhabitants of Polichna, a town of the Troad.

4121 The people of Pionia, near Scepsis and Gargara.

4122 They occupied the greater part of Mysia Proper. They had a native divinity to which they paid peculiar honours, by the Greeks called Ζεὺς Ἀβρεττηνὸς.

4123 The same as the Olympeni or Olympieni, in the district of Olympene at the foot of Mount Olympus; next to whom, on the south and west, were the Abretteni.

4124 On the south-western coast of the Troad, fifty stadia south of Larissa. In the time of Strabo it had ceased to exist. No ruins of this place have been known to be discovered, but Prokesch is induced to think that the architectural remains to be seen near Cape Baba are those of Hamaxitus.

4125 Or Cebrene or Cebren. It was separated from the territory of Scepsis by the river Menander. Leake supposes it to have occupied the higher region of Ida on the west, and that its site may have been at a place called Kushunlu Tepe, not far from Baramitsh.

4126 Mentioned in Acts xvi. 8. It is now called Eski Stambul or Old Stambul. It was situate on the coast of Troas, opposite to the south-eastern point of the island of Tenedos, and north of Assus. It was founded by Antigonus, under the name of Antigonia Troas, and peopled with settlers from Scepsis and other neighbouring towns. The ruins of this city are very extensive.

4127 Or Nea, mentioned in B. ii. c. 97.

4128 Now called the Mendereh-Chai.

4129 On the north-west promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war. The promontory is now called Yenisheri.

4130 Now called Jeni-Scher, according to Ansart. It was at this spot that the Greeks landed in their expedition against Troy.

4131 Usually identified with the Mendereh-Chai or Scamander.

4132 The modern Gumbrek.

4133 Or “ancient Scamander.”

4134 Now known as the Koja-Chai; memorable as the scene of the three great victories by which Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian empire, B.C. 334. Here also a victory was gained by Lucullus over Mithridates, B.C. 73.

4135 Or Sea of Marmora.

4136 It is not exactly known whether New Ilium was built on the same site as the Ilium or Troy which had been destroyed by the Greeks; but it has been considered improbable that the exploits mentioned in the Iliad should have happened in so short a space as that lying between the later Ilium and the coast. The site of New Ilium is generally considered to be the spot covered with ruins, now called Kissarlik, between the villages called Kum-kioi, Kalli-fath, and Tchiblak.

4137 The Dictator Sylla showed especial favour to Ilium.

4138 Now called Cape Intepeh or Barbieri.

4139 The modern Paleo Castro probably occupies its site.

4140 More generally called Dardanus, or Dardanum, said to have been built by Dardanus. It was situate about a mile south of the promontory Dardanis or Dardanium. Its exact site does not appear to bo known: from it the modern Dardanelles are supposed to have derived their name.

4141 Situate between Percote and Abydus, and founded by Scamandrius and Ascanius the son of Æneas. The village of Moussa is supposed to occupy its site. The army of Alexander mustered here after crossing the Hellespont.

4142 Alexander the Great visited this place on his Asiatic expedition in B.C. 334, and placed chaplets on the tomb of Achilles.

4143 So called from Æas, the Greek name of Ajax.

4144 Teuthrania was in the south-western comer of Mysia, between Temnus and the borders of Lydia, where in very early times Teuthras was said to have founded a Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by the kings of Lydia: this part was also called Pergamene.

4145 Called Pionitæ in the preceding Chapter.

4146 A town in the Troad, the site of which is unknown.

4147 A town on the Propontis, according to Stephanus. The sites of most of the places here mentioned are utterly unknown.

4148 Also called Pergama or Pergamus. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Pergamo or Bergamo. It was the capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, and situate in the Teuthranian district of Mysia, on the northern bank of the river Caïcus. Under its kings, its library almost equalled that of Alexandria, and the formation of it gave rise to the invention of parchment, as a writing material, which was thence called Charta Pergamena. This city was an early seat of Christianity, and is one of the seven churches of Asia to whom the Apocalyptic Epistles are addressed. Its ruins are still to be seen.

4149 At the beginning of the preceding Chapter.

4150 The people of Thyatira, mentioned in B. v. c. 31.

4151 The people of Mygdonia, a district between Mount Olympus and the coast, in the east of Mysia and the west of Bithynia.

4152 “The people of the Holy Village.” Hierocome is mentioned by Livy as situate beyond the river Mæander.

4153 The people of Attalia, mentioned in C. 32.

4154 Previously mentioned in the present Chapter.

4155 Or “the Table.” Now known as Capo de Janisseri.

4156 Also called the Milyæ, probably of the Syro-Arabian race; they were said to have been the earliest inhabitants of Lycia.

4157 The Leleges are now considered to have been a branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, who gradually became incorporated with the Hellenic race, and thus ceased to exist as an independent people.

4158 A nation belonging probably more to mythology than history. Strabo supposes them to have been of Thracian origin, and that their first place of settlement was Mysia.

4159 By some supposed to have been a people of Phrygia.

4160 Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

4161 From the Greek δαμάω, “to subdue.” Hardouin thinks that this appellation is intended to be given by Pliny to Asia in general, and not to the city of Apamea in particular, as imagined by Ortelius and others.

4162 It is so described by Homer.

4163 This was the light-house built upon it by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, whence the name of pharus came to be applied to similar structures. It was here also that, according to the common story, the seventy Translators of the Greek version of the Old Testament, hence called the Septuagint, were confined while completing their work.

4164 The narrow or fortified channel.

4165 The Neptunian channel.

4166 Mentioned also in C. 14 of the present Book.

4167 In C. 17 of the present Book.

4168 The boatmen of Ruad, the ancient Aradus, still draw fresh water from the spring Ain Ibrahim, in the sea, a few rods from the shore of the opposite coast.

4169 Now called Kibris.

4170 Strabo makes it 425. Hardouin remarks that Isidorus has not made allowance for the margin of the creeks and bays.

4171 The north-eastern extremity of Cyprus. It is now called Capo Sant Andreas. It is more generally known in the editions of Pliny by the name of Dinaretum.

4172 Now called Capo Sant Epifanio, or Pifano, after the celebrated metropolitan of Cyprus. It is the western extremity of the island.

4173 From the Greek κέρας, “a horn.” It was not improbably so called from the numerous horns or promontories on its coast.

4174 From the Greek μακάριος, “blessed,” in compliment to its fertile soil and delightful temperature.

4175 Apparently from the Greek κρυπτὸς, “concealed.” Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was so called because it was frequently hidden beneath the surface of the sea.

4176 Or New Paphos. The spot is still called Bafa or Bafo.

4177 Or Old Paphos, now Kukala or Konuklia. Old Paphos was situate near the promontory Zephyrium on the river Bocarno, where it had a good harbour; while New Paphos lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, sixty stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the chief seat of worship of Aphrodite or Venus, who was said to have landed at that place after her ascent from the sea.

4178 Situate on the most southerly point in the island; now Capo Gavatta or delle Gatte.

4179 A town situate on the south coast of Cyprus. Its ruins are to be seen between Larnika and the port now known as Salines; they are very extensive. In B. xxx. c. 9, Pliny speaks of the salt lakes near this place, which are worked at the present day.

4180 In the middle of the east coast. It was said to have been founded by Teucer the son of Telamon, who gave it the name of his native land from which he had been banished by his father.

4181 Now called Old Limasol, a town on the south coast, celebrated for its worship of Aphrodite or Venus. It was a Phœnician settlement, and Stephanus calls it the most ancient city in the island. It long preserved its oriental customs, and here the Tyrian Hercules was worshipped under his name of Melkart.

4182 Its site is now called Lapitho or Lapta.

4183 Probably the same as the Temese of Homer. It was situate in a fertile district in the middle of Cyprus, and in the neighbourhood of extensive copper mines. Near it was a celebrated plain, sacred to Venus, mentioned by Ovid.

4184 Now called Chytria, a town of Cyprus on the road from Cerinea to Salamis.

4185 In the east of Cyprus, near the Promontory of Acamas, formerly called Marion. Ptolemy Soter destroyed this town, and removed the inhabitants to Paphos. The modern name of its site is Polikrusoko or Crisophou, from the gold mines in the neighbourhood. There was more than one city of this name in Cyprus, which was probably bestowed on them during its subjection to the princes of the line of Lagus. Another Arsinoë is placed near Ammochostus to the north of the island, and a third of the same name appears in Strabo with a harbour, temple and grove, between Old and New Paphos.

4186 Or Carpasia, to the north-east of the island, facing the Promontory of Sarpedon on the Cilician coast. It was said to have been founded by Pygmalion, king of Tyre. Pococke speaks of remains at Carpas, the site of this place, especially a long wall and a pier.

4187 Or Golgos, famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, which had existed here even before its introduction at Paphos by Agapenor. Its position is unknown.

4188 Or Idalia, adjoining to which was a forest sacred to Aphrodite. The poets, who connect this place with her worship, give us no indications whatever of its precise locality. Engel identifies it with the modern Dalin, situate to the south of Leucosia, at the foot of Mount Olympus.

4189 Now Cape Anamur.

4190 “Aulon Cilicium,” now the Sea of Caramania or Cyprus.

4191 The Cilician Sea, namely.

4192 There were several islands of this name. It is not improbable that Pliny alludes to the one lying off the coast of Caria between the isle of Rhodes and the mainland, and which seems to be the island marked Alessa in the maps. There was another of the same name close to the shore of Cilicia, afterwards known by the name of Sebaste.

4193 Or Cleides, meaning the “Keys.” This was a group of small islands lying to the north-east of Cyprus. The name of the islands was afterwards transferred by some geographer to the Cape which Pliny above calls Dinæ, and others Dinaretum.

4194 Cape Acamas, now Pifano.

4195 Or the “Sacred Garden.” The names of this and the Salaminiæ do not appear to be known to the modern geographers.

4196 This is identified by Beaufort with the islet called Bœshat, which is separated by a narrow channel from the Lycian shore. The others do not seem to have been identified. Attelebussa is supposed to take its name from a kind of destructive grasshopper without wings, called by the Greeks ἀττέλεβος.

4197 Situate off the commencement of the sea-coast of Pamphylia, on the borders of Lycia. Beaufort speaks of them as five in number; he did not meet with any of the dangers of the navigation here mentioned by Pliny. The Greeks still call them Chelidoniæ, and the Italian sailors Celidoni, which the Turks have corrupted into Shelidan.

4198 Hardouin supposes these four islands to be the names of the group forming the Pactyæ. The names given appear to signify, the “Wild” or “Rough Islands,” the “Isle of the Nymphs,” the “Long Island,” and the “Greatest Island.” They were off the coast of Lycia, and seem to have belonged to the Rhodians. The modern name of Megista is Kastelorizo, according to Ansart.

4199 Or Doliche, the “Long Island,” in the Lycian Sea, west of the ruins of Myra. Its modern name is Kakava. It is now uninhabited.

4200 Still known as Grambousa, a small island off the east coast of Lycia. There seems to have been another of the same name off the Lycian coast.

4201 An island off the coast of Lycia.

4202 Hardouin thinks that they were opposite to the city of Dædala on the coast of Caria.

4203 Off the city of Crya, probably, in Caria.

4204 On the coast of Lycia.

4205 In Lycia. See C. 29 of the present Book.

4206 Probably so called from the number of hares found there.

4207 On the coast of Caria.

4208 Still known as Lindo and Camiro, according to D’Anville.

4209 One of the three ancient Doric cities of Rhodes. It lay three-quarters of a mile to the south-west of the city of Rhodes, with which Pliny seems here to confound it. Its site is occupied by a village which still bears the name of Ialiso, and where a few ancient remains are to be found.

4210 From its productiveness of serpents.

4211 Either from Asterius, its former king, or from its being a “constellation” of the sea.

4212 Probably because of the clearness and serenity of its atmosphere. See B. ii. c. 62.

4213 From its three-cornered shape.

4214 Perhaps so called from its fruitfulness in ivy, in Greek κορυμβήθρα, or else from κόρυμβος, “a summit,” from its elevated position.

4215 From its verdant and grassy soil.

4216 Either from King Atabyrius, or the mountain Atabyrion; or else from the temple of Jupiter Tabyrius, which Appian speaks of as situate in this island.

4217 The “fortunate,” or “blessed” island.

4218 “Venomous,” or “deadly.” This name it most probably had in early times (and not more recently, as Pliny says), when it was covered with dense forests, the retreats of serpents and noxious reptiles.

4219 Now known as Skarpanto.

4220 Mentioned by Homer, Il. ii. 676. See also B. iv. c. 23 of the present work. It is described by Ross as a single ridge of mountains, of considerable height.

4221 Signifying “sea-foam.”

4222 Still known as Nicero.

4223 From its production of the ‘murex,’ or ‘purple.’

4224 Now called Symi, a small island off the south-west coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Gulf of Doris, to the west of the Promontory of Cynossema.

4225 Now called the Island of St. Catherine, according to Ansart.

4226 Stephanus Byzantinus mentions these islands as lying in the vicinity at Syme. Perhaps they are the group lying to the south of it, now called Siskle.

4227 Distant about fifty miles from Carpathus, or Skarpanto. It was probably subject to Rhodes, in the vicinity of which it was situate. Its present name is Chalki.

4228 An island, according to Hardouin, not far from Halicarnassus, on the coast of Ionia.

4229 So called from its productiveness of the νάρθηξ, or ferula.

4230 More probably Calydnæ, because there were several islands forming the group, of which Calymna was the chief. See B. iv. c. 23, where Pliny mentions only one town, that of Coös. There are some remains of the ancient towns still to be seen.

4231 A small island of Caria, south of Halicarnassus. It is now called Orak-Ada.

4232 Probably so called from the almost continual rains there.

4233 Now called Stanko, or Stanchio, a corruption of ἐς τὰν Κῶ.

4234 Which has been previously mentioned in this Chapter.

4235 In C. 29, Pliny has mentioned a Caryanda on the mainland. It is probable that there was a town on the mainland and another in the island of the same name. Leake says, that there can be little doubt that the large peninsula, towards the west end of which is the fine harbour called by the Turks Pasha Limani, is the ancient island of Caryanda, now joined to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus.

4236 The island of Hyali, near the harbour of Meffi, on the coast of Caria, according to Dupinet.

4237 Probably so called from the worship of the god Priapus there.

4238 Few, if any, of these islets can now be recognized. Sepiussa was probably so called from the abundance of the sepia, or cuttle-fish, there.

4239 Over against the isle of Samos.

4240 B. iv. c. 23.

4241 Near the city of Miletus.

4242 So called from their resemblance to camels.

4243 Lying before the Promontory of Trogilium, mentioned in C. 31.

4244 Augustus gave their liberty to the Samians. The island is still called by the Greeks Samo, and by the Turks Susam Adassi.

4245 The “Virgin’s Island,” if so called after Juno, as some say; but according to Strabo, it received its name from the river Parthenius.

4246 From its numerous oaks.

4247 From the abundance of its flowers.

4248 “Of dark,” or “black foliage;” in allusion probably to its cypresses.

4249 “Cypress-bearing.”

4250 This is not improbably a compound, formed by a mistake of the copyists, of the two names, Parthenia and Aryusa, mentioned by Heraclides.

4251 “The Crown.” This island was the birth-place of Pythagoras.

4252 Now known as Khio, Scio, Saka Adassi, or Saksadasi. Chios was declared free by the Dictator Sulla.

4253 Χιὼν, gen. Χιόνος.

4254 Macris, from its length, and Pityusa, from its pine-trees.

4255 Dalechamps says 112 is the correct measurement.

4256 Mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book.

4257 Meaning “green and flourishing.”

4258 “Productive of laurels.” None of these islets appear to have been recognized by their modern names.

4259 By Strabo called Pordoselene. He says that the islands in its vicinity were forty in number; of which Pliny here gives the names of two-and-twenty.

4260 South of Proconnesus; now called Aloni.

4261 Near the city of Clazomenæ. It is now called Vourla, according to Ansart.

4262 Now Koutali, according to Ansart.

4263 We learn from Strabo and other writers, that this city was on a peninsula, and that it stood on the southern side of the isthmus, connecting Mount Mimas with the mainland of Lydia. It was the birth-place of Anacreon and Hecatæus.

4264 Or the “Dove Islands;” probably from the multitude of those birds found on those islands.

4265 Now called Antigona, according to Ansart.

4266 Now Mitylene, or Metelin.

4267 We find it also stated by Herodotus, that this island was destroyed by the Methymnæans. The cities of Mitylene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, originally formed the Æolian Hexapolis, or Confederation of Six Cities.

4268 The ruins found by Pococke at Calas Limneonas, north-east of Cape Sigri, may be those of Antissa. This place was the birth-place of Terpander, the inventor of the seven-stringed lyre.

4269 Or Eressus, according to Strabo. It stood on a hill, reaching down to the sea. Its ruins are said to be near a place still called Eresso. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Theophrastus, the disciple of Aristotle.

4270 Still called Mitylene, or Metelin.

4271 Strabo makes it about only 137 miles.

4272 Or the White Islands.

4273 So called from its fruitfulness in quinces, or “Mala Cydonia.”

4274 These were three small islands, near the mainland of Æolis. It was off these islands that the ten generals of the Athenians gained a victory over the Spartans, B.C. 406. The modern name of these islands is said to be Janot.

4275 One of the Leucæ, previously mentioned.

4276 So called from the φελλὸς, or “cork,” which it produced.

4277 Still known as Tenedos, near the mouth of the Hellespont. Here the Greeks were said to have concealed their fleet, to induce the Trojans to think that they had departed, and then introduce the wooden horse within their walls.

4278 “Having white eye-brows;” probably from the whiteness of its cliffs.

4279 In C. 33 of the present Book.

4280 Opposite to Sestos, made famous by the loves of Hero and Leander. Aidos, or Avido, a village on the Hellespont, is thought to occupy its site.

4281 Now called Bergase, according to D’Anville.

4282 Its ruins are still known as Lapsaki. This important city was celebrated for its wine, and was the chief seat of the worship of the god Priapus.

4283 Its site is now called Camanar, according to D’Anville.

4284 According to Ansart, the modern Caraboa marks its site.

4285 Now called the Satal-dere, according to Ansart.

4286 Its locality was not far from the modern Biga, according to Ansart.

4287 Now the Sea of Marmora.

4288 Mentioned in C. 33 of the present Book.

4289 Now called Artaki, or Erdek, a town of Mysia, and a Milesian colony. A poor town now occupies its site.

4290 Its ruins are called by the Turks Bal Kiz, probably meaning “Old Cyzicus.” There are many subterraneous passages, and the ruins are of considerable extent. Its temples and storehouses appear to have been built on a scale of great magnificence. See Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 15.

4291 The “Island of the Bears,” which animals frequented the mountain in its vicinity.

4292 Called Dindymum by Herodotus; probably the modern Morad Dagh, in which the river Hermus rises.

4293 Now called Saki, according to Ansart.

4294 Now called the Lartacho, according to Ansart.

4295 Previously mentioned in C. 32 of the present Book.

4296 In its limited sense; considered as a portion only of Asia Minor.

4297 On the west it bordered on Mysia, and on the south on Phrygia and Galatia, while the eastern boundary seems to have been less definite.

4298 Ephorus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, says, that the Halizones inhabited the district lying between Caria, Mysia, and Lydia. Hesychius incorrectly places them in Paphlagonia.

4299 Meaning the “Village of Gordius,” one of its ancient kings. It was also called Gordium. After falling to decay, it was rebuilt by Augustus, and called Juliopolis. It is celebrated in history as the place where Alexander the Great cut the Gordian knot; the scene of the adventure being the Acropolis of the town, the former palace of King Gordius.

4300 There were several Asiatic cities of the similar name of Dascylium. The site of the one here mentioned does not appear to have been ascertained.

4301 More generally read “Gebes.”

4302 The “Bull’s Bed,” or “Den.” It probably took its second name from the Roman general Germanicus.

4303 Now called Medania, or Mutania. It received its name of Apamea from Prusias, king of Bithynia, in compliment to his wife. In the time of the first Cæsars, it was made a Roman colony.

4304 The Bay of Cios. The river runs into a lake, formerly known as Lake Ascanius; probably that mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxi. c. 10.

4305 Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was the same as the town of Cios, or Cius, here mentioned as near to it. It was on the shores of the Propontis.

4306 Cape Baba, or Santa Maria; the south-western promontory of the Troad.

4307 In Phrygia Epictetus, or “Conquered Phrygia,” so called from its conquest by certain of the kings of Bithynia. Strabo calls this place a “small city, or hill-fortress, towards Lydia.” It was probably situate near the source of the Macestus, now the Susugherli Su, or the Simaul Su, as it is called in its upper course.

4308 The place from which the citizens were removed to Apamea, as mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book. Hamilton (Researches, &c., p. 499) supposes its acropolis to have been situate about half a mile from the sources of the river Marsyas.

4309 First mentioned by Herodotus, and situate on the Lycus, a branch of the Mæander. It had greatly declined in Strabo’s time, and in the middle ages there rose near it a town of the name of Chonæ, and Colossæ disappeared. Hamilton found extensive ruins of an ancient city about three miles north of the modern Khonos. It was one of the early Christian churches of Asia, and the Apostle Paul addressed one of his Epistles to the people of this place. It does not appear from it that he had ever visited the place; indeed, from Chap. ii. 1 we may conclude that he had not.

4310 This does not appear to be the same as the Carine mentioned in C. 32 of this Book, as having gone to decay. Its site is unknown.

4311 Or Cotiæum, or Cotyæum. It was on the Roman road from Dorylæum to Philadelphia, and in Phrygia Epictetus, according to Strabo. The modern Kutahiyah is supposed to denote its site; but there are no remains of antiquity.

4312 It was bounded on the west, south, and south-east by those countries; and on the north-east, north, and north-west by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia.

4313 Mentioned in C. 40, under the name of Gordiucome.

4314 Who invaded and settled in Asia Minor, at various periods during the third century B.C.

4315 Near a small stream, which seems to enter the Sangarius. It originally belonged to Phrygia, and its mythical founder was Midas, the son of Gordius, who was said to have found an anchor on the spot, and accordingly given the name to the town; which story would, however, as it has been observed, imply that the name for anchor (ἄγκυρα) was the same in the Greek and the Phrygian languages. The Tectosages, who settled here about B.C. 277, are supposed to have been from the neighbourhood of Toulouse. It is now called Angora, or Engareh; and the fine hair of the Angora goat may have formed one of the staple commodities of the place, which had a very considerable trade. The chief monument of antiquity here is the marble temple of the Emperor Augustus, built in his honour during his lifetime. In the inside is the Latin inscription known as the monumentum, or marmor Ancyranum, containing a record of the memorable actions of Augustus. The ruins here are otherwise interesting in a high degree.

4316 Now Tchoroum, according to Ansart.

4317 Its ruins are called Bala-Hisar, in the south-west of Galatia, on the southern slope of Mount Didymus. This place was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of the goddess Cybele, under the surname of Agdistis, whose temple, filled with riches, stood on a hill outside of the city.

4318 Hardouin suggests that these are the Chomenses, the people of the city of Choma, in the interior of Lycia, mentioned in C. 28 of the present Book.

4319 The people of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of Isauria, celebrated as one of the chief scenes of the preaching of Paul and Barnabas. See Acts xiv.

4320 The people of Seleucia, in Pisidia.

4321 The people of Sebaste, a town of the Tectosages.

4322 The people of Timonium, a town of Paphlagonia, according to Stephanus Byzantinus.

4323 Thebasa, a town of Lycaonia, has been mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book.

4324 See C. 25 of the present Book.

4325 The town of Oroanda, giving name to this district, is mentioned at the end of C. 24 of the present Book.

4326 The Caÿster, the Rhyndacus, and the Cios.

4327 Now called the Sakariyeh, the largest river of Asia Minor after the ancient Halys.

4328 Now called the Lefke, which discharges itself into the Tangarius, or Sakariyeh.

4329 Called “Galli.” They were said to become mad from drinking of the waters of this river, and to mutilate themselves when in a frantic state. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. iv. l. 364 et seq.

4330 Now called Brusa. It stood on the north side of Mount Olympus, fifteen Roman miles from Cius. According to most accounts, it was built by Prusias, king of Bithynia. It is most probable that Hannibal superintended the works, while staying as a refugee at the court of Prusias.

4331 Now Lake Iznik.

4332 Its ruins are to be seen at Iznik, on the east side of the lake of that name. Its site is supposed to have been originally occupied by the town of Attæa, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiæans, called Ancore, or Helicore, which was destroyed by the Mysians. On this spot, shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built a city which he named after himself, Antigonæa; but Lysimachus soon afterwards changed the name into Nicæa, in honour of his wife. Under the kings of Bithynia, it was often the royal residence, and it long disputed with Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The modern Iznik is only a poor village, with about 100 houses. Considerable ruins of the ancient city are still in existence. Littré seems to think that there are two Nicæas meant in these passages; but it would seem that the same place is alluded to in both lines. The only thing that seems to give countenance to Littré’s supposition (in which he is supported by Hardouin) is, the expression “Et Prusa item altera.”

4333 It has been suggested, that this is only another name for the town of Cios, previously mentioned; but it is most probable that they were distinct places, and that this was originally called Cierus, and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was conquered by King Prusias, who named it after himself. It stood to the north-west of the other Prusa.

4334 Or the “Golden Stream.”

4335 Suggested by Parisot to be the modern Cape Fagma.

4336 From the Greek κράσπεδον, a “skirt.”

4337 Or Astacus, a colony originally from Megara and Athens. From Scylax it would appear that this city was also called Olbia. Its site is placed by some of the modern geographers at a spot called Ovaschik, and also Bashkele.

4338 Called Gebiseh, according to Busbequis,—at least in his day. The modern Hereket, on the coast, has been suggested.

4339 Its ruins now bear the name of Izmid, or Iznikmid, at the north-eastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus, or Gulf of Izmid. It was the chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and one of the most splendid cities in the world. Under the Romans it was made a colony, and was a favourite residence of Diocletian and Constantine the Great. Arrian the historian was born here.

4340 Now Akrita. It is also called Akritas by Ptolemy.

4341 The Straits, or Channel of Constantinople.

4342 Its site is supposed to have been about two miles south of the modern Scutari, and it is said that the modern Greeks call it Chalkedon, and the Turks Kadi-Kioi. Its destruction was completed by the Turks, who used its materials for the construction of the mosques and other buildings of Constantinople.

4343 So called, Hardouin thinks, from its being opposite to the Golden Horn, or promontory on which Byzantium was built.

4344 Or Myrlea, mentioned above in C. 40. See p. 490.

4345 Or Bithynium, lying above Tius. Its vicinity was a good feeding country for cattle, and noted for the excellence of its cheese, as mentioned by Pliny, B. xi. c. 42. Antinoüs, the favourite of the Emperor Adrian, was born here, as Pausanias informs us. Its site does not appear to be known.

4346 These rivers do not appear to have been identified by the modern geographers.

4347 The modern Scutari occupies its site. Dionysius of Byzantium states, that it was called Chrysopolis, either because the Persians made it the place of deposit for the gold which they levied from the cities, or else from Chryses, a son of Agamemnon and Chryseis.

4348 A king of the Bebrycians. For some further particulars relative to this place, see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.

4349 Situate on a promontory, which is represented by the modern Algiro, according to Hardouin and Parisot.

4350 Other writers say that it was erected in honour of the Twelve Greater Divinities.

4351 Called Phinopolis in most of the editions. It is very doubtful whether this passage ought not to be translated, “At a distance thence of eight miles and three-quarters is the first entrance to this strait, at the spot,” &c. We have, however, adopted the rendering of Holland, Ajasson, and Littré.

4352 Mentioned in C. 28 of the present Book.

4353 In B. iv. c. 24.

4354 Or “Deer Island.”

4355 Now Afzia, according to D’Anville.

4356 There is still an island in the Sea of Marmora known by the name Alon, which is separated from the north-western extremity of the Peninsula of Cyzicus by a narrow channel.

4357 Hesychius says, that there were two islands near Byzantium called by the common name of Demonnesi, but severally having the names of Chalcitis and Pityusa. Pliny, on the other hand, places Demonnesus opposite to Nicomedia, and at the same time mentions Chalcitis and Pityodes (probably the same as Pityusa) as distinct places. D’Anville calls Demonnesus “The Isle of Princes.”

4358 The position assigned to this island by Pliny and Strabo corresponds with that of Kalolimno, a small island ten miles north of the mouth of the Rhyndacus.

4359 Now called Prota, according to Parisot.

4360 So called from its copper-mines; now called Khalki, or Karki.

4361 Now called Prinkipo, east of Khalki.

4362 See end of B. iii.

4363 A celebrated Roman general, who was successively governor of Numidia and Britain, where he defeated Queen Boadicea. He was a supporter of the Emperor Otho, but afterwards obtained a pardon from Vitellius on the plea that he had betrayed Otho at the battle of Bedriacum, and so contributed to his defeat; which, however, was not the case.

4364 See end of B. ii.

4365 See end of B. iii.

4366 See end of B. ii.

4367 See end of B. iii.

4368 See end of B. iii.

4369 See end of B. iii.

4370 Brother of Cæsonia, the wife of Caligula, and father of Domitia Longina, the wife of Domitian. He was the greatest general of his day, and conquered Tiridates, the powerful king of Parthia. He slew himself at Cenchreæ, A.D. 67, upon hearing that Nero had given orders for his execution.

4371 See end of B. ii.

4372 The Roman emperor, grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. As an author, the character in which he is here referred to, he occupied himself chiefly with history, and was encouraged in the pursuit by Livy the historian. At an early age he began to write a history from the death of the Dictator Cæsar, a plan which he afterwards abandoned, and began his work with the restoration of peace, after the battle of Actium. Of the earlier period he had written only four books, but the latter work he extended to forty-four. He also wrote memoirs of his own life, which Suetonius describes as written with more silliness than inelegance. A fourth work was a defence of Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Pollio. He also wrote histories of Carthage and of Etruria in Greek. All of his literary works have perished.

4373 See end of B. iii.

4374 Nothing whatever is known of this son of T. Livius, the great Roman historian. It is not improbable that the transcribers have committed an error in inserting the word filio, and that the historian himself is the person meant.

4375 See end of B. ii.

4376 “Acta Triumphorum” probably mean the registers kept in the Capitol, in which were inscribed the names of those who were honoured with triumphs, and the decrees of the senate or the people in their favour. This register must not be confounded with the “Tabulæ Consulares.”

4377 Juba II., king of Mauritania. After the defeat of his father at Thapsus, he was carried a prisoner to Rome, though quite a child, and compelled to grace the conqueror’s triumph. Augustus Cæsar afterwards restored to him his kingdom, and gave him in marriage Cleopatra, or Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. To his literary pursuits he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. His works are continually quoted by Pliny, who regards his authority with the utmost deference. Among his numerous works he seems to have written a History of Africa, Assyria, Arabia, and Rome; as also Treatises on the Stage, Music, Grammar, and Painting.

4378 Of Miletus. See end of B. iv.

4379 See end of B. iv.

4380 See end of B. iv.

4381 See end of B. ii.

4382 He was employed by Alexander the Great in measuring distances in his marches. He wrote a work upon this subject, entitled, “Distances of the Marches of Alexander.”

4383 See end of B. iv.

4384 See end of B. iv.

4385 See end of B. iv.

4386 See end of B. iv.

4387 See end of B. iv.

4388 See end of B. ii.

4389 See end of B. iv.

4390 Of Chalcis. See end of B. iv.

4391 See end of B. iv.

4392 See end of B. ii.

4393 See end of B. ii.

4394 Of Rhodes, the friend of P. Scipio Æmilianus and Lælius. He was the head of the Stoic School at Athens, where he died. His principal work was a Treatise on Moral Duties, which served as a model for Cicero in the composition of his work, “De Officiis.” He also wrote a work on the philosophical sects.

4395 See end of B. ii.

4396 See end of B. iv.

4397 See end of B. iv.

4398 See end of B. iv.

4399 See end of B. ii.

4400 See end of B. ii.

4401 See end of B. iv.

4402 See end of B. iii.

4403 See end of B. iii.

4404 See end of B. ii.

4405 There are four literary persons mentioned of this name. 1. An Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. 2. A native of Maronæa, in Thrace, or else of Crete, who wrote lascivious and abusive verses, and was at last put to death by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the inventor of the Sotadean verse, or Ionic a Majore, Tetrameter Brachycatalectic. 3. An Athenian philosopher, who wrote a book on mysteries. 4. A Byzantine philosopher, of whom nothing whatever is known.

4406 There were two writers of this name, before the time of Pliny. 1. Periander of Corinth, one of the Seven Wise Men, who wrote a didactic poem, containing moral and political precepts, in 2000 lines; and, 2. a physician and bad poet, contemporary with Archidamas, the son of Agesilaüs. It is uncertain to which Pliny here refers.

4407 Probably a writer on geography. Nothing appears to be known of him.

4408 Of Cyzicus, See end of B. ii.; of Cnidos, See end of B. iv.

4409 A Greek historian, who appears, from Plutarch, to have written a history of the expeditions of Alexander the Great.

4410 See end of B. iii.

4411 See end of B. iii.

4412 See end of B. iii.

4413 The author of the Periplus, or voyage which he performed round a part of Libya, of which we have a Greek translation from the Punic original. His age is not known, but Pliny states (B. ii. c. 67, and B. v. c. 1) that the voyage was undertaken in the most flourishing days of Carthage. It has been considered on the whole, that he may be probably identified with Hanno, the son or the father of Hamilcar, who was slain at Himera, B.C. 480.

4414 Mentioned also by Pliny, B. ii. c. 67, as having conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades towards the north, along the western shores of Europe, at the same time that Hanno proceeded on his voyage along the western coast of Africa. He is repeatedly quoted by Festus Avienus, in his geographical poem called Ora Maritima. His voyage is said to have lasted four months, but it is impossible to judge how far it extended.

4415 See end of B. iii.

4416 See end of B. iii.

4417 See end of B. ii.

4418 A Greek geographer, and friend of Seleucus Nicator, by whom he was sent on an embassy to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, whoso capital was Palibothra, a town probably in the vicinity of the present Patna. Whether he had accompanied Alexander on his invasion of India is quite uncertain. He wrote a work on India in four books, to which the subsequent Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their accounts of India. Arrian speaks highly of him as a writer, but Strabo impeaches his veracity; and we find Pliny hinting the same in B. vi. c. 21. Of his work only a few fragments survive.

4419 See end of B. ii.

4420 See end of B. iv.

4421 There was a philosopher of this name, a nephew of Chrysippus, and his pupil; but it is not known whether he is the person referred to, in C. 10, either as having written a work on universal geography, or on that of Egypt.

Transcriber’s Notes:

The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been corrected.

In footnote 3897:—
See B. ii. c. 116.
corrected to read:—
See B. ii. c. 110.

In footnote 4348:—
A king of … see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.
is incorrect, as B. xvi is to be found in Vol. III.

1

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Table of Contents

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY.

PREFACE

THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY.

CONTENTS. OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

BOOK I.34 DEDICATION. C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS TO HIS FRIEND TITUS VESPASIAN.

BOOK II. AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHETHER THE WORLD BE FINITE, AND WHETHER THERE BE MORE THAN ONE WORLD.

CHAP. 2. (2.)—OF THE FORM OF THE WORLD91.

CHAP. 3. (3.)—OF ITS NATURE; WHENCE THE NAME IS DERIVED.

CHAP. 4. (5.)—OF THE ELEMENTS100 AND THE PLANETS101.

CHAP. 5. (7.)—OF GOD109.

CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON AND THE SUN.

CHAP. 8. (11.)—OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.

CHAP. 9. (12.)—AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE ON THE HEAVENS BY DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS.

CHAP. 10. (13.)—ON THE RECURRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND THE MOON.

CHAP. 11. (14.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE MOON.

CHAP. 12. (15.)—OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF THEIR ASPECTS204.

CHAP. 13.—WHY THE SAME STARS APPEAR AT SOME TIMES MORE LOFTY AND AT OTHER TIMES MORE NEAR.

CHAP. 14. (17.)—WHY THE SAME STARS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIONS.

CHAP. 15.—GENERAL LAWS240 OF THE PLANETS.

CHAP. 16. (18.)—THE REASON WHY THE STARS ARE OF DIFFERENT COLOURS.

CHAP. 17. (19.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE SUN AND THE CAUSE OF THE IRREGULARITY OF THE DAYS.

CHAP. 18. (20.)—WHY THUNDER IS ASCRIBED TO JUPITER.

CHAP. 19. (21.)—OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.

CHAP. 20. (22.)—OF THE HARMONY OF THE STARS.

CHAP. 21. (23.)—OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE WORLD.

CHAP. 22. (24.)—OF THE STARS WHICH APPEAR SUDDENLY, OR OF COMETS270.

CHAP. 23.—THEIR NATURE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.

CHAP. 24. (26.)—THE DOCTRINE OF HIPPARCHUS293 ABOUT THE STARS.

CHAP. 25.—EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY OF CELESTIAL PRODIGIES; FACES, LAMPADES, AND BOLIDES295.

CHAP. 26.—TRABES CELESTES; CHASMA CŒLI.

CHAP. 27. (27.)—OF THE COLOURS OF THE SKY AND OF CELESTIAL FLAME.

CHAP. 28. (28.)—OF CELESTIAL CORONÆ.

CHAP. 29.—OF SUDDEN CIRCLES.

CHAP. 30.—OF UNUSUALLY LONG ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.

CHAP. 31. (31.)—MANY SUNS.

CHAP. 32. (32.)—MANY MOONS.

CHAP. 33. (33.)—DAYLIGHT IN THE NIGHT.

CHAP. 34. (34.)—BURNING SHIELDS311.

CHAP. 35. (35.)—AN OMINOUS APPEARANCE IN THE HEAVENS, THAT WAS SEEN ONCE ONLY.

CHAP. 36. (36.)—OF STARS WHICH MOVE ABOUT IN VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

CHAP. 37. (37.)—OF THE STARS WHICH ARE NAMED CASTOR AND POLLUX316.

CHAP. 38. (38.)—OF THE AIR AND ON THE CAUSE OF THE SHOWERS OF STONES.

CHAP. 39. (39.)—OF THE STATED SEASONS.

CHAP. 40. (40.)—OF THE RISING OF THE DOG-STAR.

CHAP. 41. (41.)—OF THE REGULAR INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT SEASONS.

CHAP. 42. (42.)—OF UNCERTAIN STATES OF THE WEATHER.

CHAP. 43. (43.)—OF THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

CHAP. 44.—THE ORIGIN OF WINDS.

CHAP. 45.—VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING WINDS.

CHAP. 46. (47.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WINDS349.

CHAP. 47.—THE PERIODS OF THE WINDS360.

CHAP. 48.—NATURE OF THE WINDS376.

CHAP. 49. (48.)—ECNEPHIAS AND TYPHON.

CHAP. 50.—TORNADOES; BLASTING WINDS; WHIRLWINDS389, AND OTHER WONDERFUL KINDS OF TEMPESTS.

CHAP. 51. (50.)—OF THUNDER393; IN WHAT COUNTRIES IT DOES NOT FALL, AND FOR WHAT REASON.

CHAP. 52. (51.)—OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF LIGHTNING395 AND THEIR WONDERFUL EFFECTS.

CHAP. 53. (52.)—THE ETRURIAN400 AND THE ROMAN OBSERVATIONS ON THESE POINTS.

CHAP. 54. (53.)—OF CONJURING UP THUNDER.

CHAP. 55. (54.)—GENERAL LAWS OF LIGHTNING.

CHAP. 56. (55.)—OBJECTS WHICH ARE NEVER STRUCK.

CHAP. 57. (56.)—SHOWERS OF MILK, BLOOD, FLESH, IRON, WOOL, AND BAKED TILES422.

CHAP. 58. (57.)—RATTLING OF ARMS AND THE SOUND OF TRUMPETS HEARD IN THE SKY.

CHAP. 59. (58.)—OF STONES THAT HAVE FALLEN FROM THE CLOUDS429. THE OPINION OF ANAXAGORAS RESPECTING THEM.

CHAP. 60. (59.)—THE RAINBOW.

CHAP. 61.—THE NATURE OF HAIL, SNOW, HOAR, MIST, DEW; THE FORMS OF CLOUDS.

CHAP. 62. (62.)—THE PECULIARITIES OF THE WEATHER IN DIFFERENT PLACES.

CHAP. 63. (63.)—NATURE OF THE EARTH.

CHAP. 64. (64.)—OF THE FORM OF THE EARTH.

CHAP. 65. (65.)—WHETHER THERE BE ANTIPODES?

CHAP. 66.—HOW THE WATER IS CONNECTED WITH THE EARTH. OF THE NAVIGATION OF THE SEA AND THE RIVERS.

CHAP. 67. (67.)—WHETHER THE OCEAN SURROUNDS THE EARTH.

CHAP. 68. (68.)—WHAT PART OF THE EARTH IS INHABITED.

CHAP. 69. (69.)—THAT THE EARTH IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WORLD.

CHAP. 70. (70.)—OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ZONES484.

CHAP. 71.—OF THE INEQUALITY OF CLIMATES.

CHAP. 72.—IN WHAT PLACES ECLIPSES ARE INVISIBLE, AND WHY THIS IS THE CASE.

CHAP. 73. (71.)—WHAT REGULATES THE DAYLIGHT ON THE EARTH.

CHAP. 74. (72.)—REMARKS ON DIALS, AS CONNECTED WITH THIS SUBJECT.

CHAP. 75. (73.)—WHEN AND WHERE THERE ARE NO SHADOWS.

CHAP. 76. (74.)—-WHERE THIS TAKES PLACE TWICE IN THE YEAR AND WHERE THE SHADOWS FALL IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.

CHAP. 77. (75.)—WHERE THE DAYS ARE THE LONGEST AND WHERE THE SHORTEST.

CHAP. 78. (76.)—OF THE FIRST DIAL.

CHAP. 79. (77.)—OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE DAYS ARE COMPUTED.

CHAP. 80. (78.)—OF THE DIFFERENCE OF NATIONS AS DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE WORLD.

CHAP. 81. (79.)—OF EARTHQUAKES.

CHAP. 82. (80.)—OF CLEFTS OF THE EARTH.

CHAP. 83. (81.)—SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING EARTHQUAKE.

CHAP. 84. (82.)—PRESERVATIVES AGAINST FUTURE EARTHQUAKES.

CHAP. 85. (83.)—PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH WHICH HAVE OCCURRED ONCE ONLY.

CHAP. 86. (84.)—WONDERFUL CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING EARTHQUAKES.

CHAP. 87. (85.)—IN WHAT PLACES THE SEA HAS RECEDED.

CHAP. 88. (86.)—THE MODE IN WHICH ISLANDS RISE UP.

CHAP. 89. (87.)—WHAT ISLANDS HAVE BEEN FORMED, AND AT WHAT PERIODS.

CHAP 90.—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEPARATED BY THE SEA.

CHAP. 91. (89.)—ISLANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNITED TO THE MAIN LAND.

CHAP. 92. (90.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN TOTALLY CHANGED INTO SEAS.

CHAP. 93. (91.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SWALLOWED UP.

CHAP. 94. (92.)—CITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY THE SEA.

CHAP. 95. (93.)—OF VENTS587 IN THE EARTH.

CHAP. 96. (94.)—OF CERTAIN LANDS WHICH ARE ALWAYS SHAKING, AND OF FLOATING ISLANDS.

CHAP. 97. (96.)—PLACES IN WHICH IT NEVER RAINS.

CHAP. 98.—THE WONDERS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES COLLECTED TOGETHER.

CHAP. 99. (97.)—CONCERNING THE CAUSE OF THE FLOWING AND EBBING OF THE SEA.

CHAP. 100.—WHERE THE TIDES RISE AND FALL IN AN UNUSUAL MANNER.

CHAP. 101. (98.)—WONDERS OF THE SEA.

CHAP. 102. (99.)—THE POWER OF THE MOON OVER THE LAND AND THE SEA.

CHAP. 103. (100.)—THE POWER OF THE SUN.

CHAP. 104.—WHY THE SEA IS SALT.

CHAP. 105. (102.)—WHERE THE SEA IS THE DEEPEST.

CHAP. 106. (103.)—THE WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND RIVERS.

CHAP. 107.—THE WONDERS OF FIRE AND WATER UNITED.

CHAP. 108. (104.)—OF MALTHA.

CHAP. 109. (105.)—OF NAPHTHA.

CHAP. 110. (106.)—PLACES WHICH ARE ALWAYS BURNING.

CHAP. 111. (107.)—WONDERS OF FIRE ALONE.

CHAP. 112. (108.)—THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH.

CHAP. 113.—THE HARMONICAL PROPORTION OF THE UNIVERSE.

BOOK III. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED. INTRODUCTION.

- CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE FIRST SET FORTH IN A GENERAL WAY.

- CHAP. 2.—OF SPAIN GENERALLY.

- CHAP. 3.—OF BÆTICA.

- CHAP. 4. (3.)—OF NEARER SPAIN.

- CHAP. 5. (4.)—OF THE PROVINCE OF GALLIA NARBONENSIS.

- CHAP. 6. (5.)—OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 7.—OF THE NINTH1167 REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 8.—THE SEVENTH REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 9.—THE FIRST REGION OF ITALY1264; THE TIBER; ROME.

- CHAP. 10.—THE THIRD REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 11.—SIXTY-FOUR ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ARE THE BALEARES.

- CHAP. 12. (6.)—CORSICA.

- CHAP. 13.—SARDINIA.

- CHAP. 14. (8.)—SICILY.

- CHAP. 15. (10.)—MAGNA GRÆCIA, BEGINNING AT LOCRI.

- CHAP. 16.—THE SECOND REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 17. (12.)—THE FOURTH REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 18. (13.)—THE FIFTH REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 19. (14.)—THE SIXTH REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 20. (15.)—THE EIGHTH REGION OF ITALY; THE PADUS.

- CHAP. 21. (17.)—THE ELEVENTH REGION OF ITALY; ITALIA TRANSPADANA.

- CHAP. 22. (18.)—THE TENTH REGION OF ITALY.

- CHAP. 23. (19.)—ISTRIA, ITS PEOPLE AND LOCALITY.

- CHAP. 24. (20.)—THE ALPS, AND THE ALPINE NATIONS.

- CHAP. 25. (21.)—LIBURNIA AND ILLYRICUM.

- CHAP. 26. (22.)—DALMATIA.

- CHAP. 27. (24.)—THE NORICI.

- CHAP. 28. (25.)—PANNONIA.

- CHAP. 29. (26.)—MŒSIA.

- CHAP. 30.—ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA AND THE ADRIATIC.

BOOK IV. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

- CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.

- CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.

- CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.

- CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.

- CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.

- CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.

- CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.

- CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.

- CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.

- CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.

- CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.

- CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.

- CHAP. 13.—DORIS.

- CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.

- CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.

- CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.

- CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.

- CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.

- CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

- CHAP. 20.—CRETE.

- CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.

- CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.

- CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.

- CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.

- CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.

- CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.

- CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.

- CHAP. 28.—GERMANY.

- CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.

- CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA.

- CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA.

- CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS.

- CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA.

- CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN.

- CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA.

- CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

- CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE.

BOOK V. AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

- CHAP. 1.—THE TWO MAURITANIAS.

- CHAP. 2. (3.)—NUMIDIA.

- CHAP. 3. (4.)—AFRICA.

- CHAP. 4.—THE SYRTES.

- CHAP. 5. (5.)—CYRENAICA.

- CHAP. 6. (6.)—LIBYA MAREOTIS.

- CHAP. 7. (7.)—THE ISLANDS IN THE VICINITY OF AFRICA.

- CHAP. 8. (8.)—COUNTRIES ON THE OTHER SIDE OF AFRICA.

- CHAP. 9. (9.)—EGYPT AND THEBAIS.

- CHAP. 10.—THE RIVER NILE.

- CHAP. 11.—THE CITIES OF EGYPT.

- CHAP. 12. (11.)—THE COASTS OF ARABIA, SITUATE ON THE EGYPTIAN SEA.

- CHAP. 13. (12.)—SYRIA.

- CHAP. 14.—IDUMÆA, PALÆSTINA, AND SAMARIA.

- CHAP. 15. (14.)—JUDÆA.

- CHAP. 16. (18.)—DECAPOLIS.

- CHAP. 17. (19.)—PHŒNICE.

- CHAP. 18.—SYRIA ANTIOCHIA.

- CHAP. 19. (23.)—THE REMAINING PARTS OF SYRIA.

- CHAP. 20. (24.)—THE EUPHRATES.

- CHAP. 21.—SYRIA UPON THE EUPHRATES.

- CHAP. 22. (27.)—CILICIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

- CHAP. 23.—ISAURIA AND THE HOMONADES.

- CHAP. 24.—PISIDIA.

- CHAP. 25.—LYCAONIA.

- CHAP. 26.—PAMPHYLIA.

- CHAP. 27.—MOUNT TAURUS.

- CHAP. 28.—LYCIA.

- CHAP. 29.—CARIA.

- CHAP. 30.—LYDIA.

- CHAP. 31.—IONIA.

- CHAP. 32. (30.)—ÆOLIS.

- CHAP. 33.—TROAS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

- CHAP. 34. (31.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE IN FRONT OF ASIA.

- CHAP. 35.—CYPRUS.

- CHAP. 36.—RHODES.

- CHAP. 37.—SAMOS.

- CHAP. 38.—CHIOS.

- CHAP. 39.—LESBOS.

- CHAP. 40. (32.)—THE HELLESPONT AND MYSIA.

- CHAP. 41.—PHRYGIA.

- CHAP. 42.—GALATIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.

- CHAP. 43.—BITHYNIA.

- CHAP. 44.—THE ISLANDS OF THE PROPONTIS.

APPENDIX OF CORRECTIONS.

FOOTNOTES:

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